Forms of international economic relations. Forms of international economic relations and their characteristics International economic relations world trade

1. International trade - exchange of goods and services between countries, including export (export) and import (import).

2. Migration of labor- the movement of persons of hired labor between countries and the redistribution of labor between the spheres of the world economy.

3. International monetary and financial relations- system of currency payment settlements between countries.

4. International monetary and credit relations- relations between creditors and borrowers of different countries.

5. International industrial cooperation and investment activity - manifested in the international specialization and cooperation of production and the attraction of foreign capital in the development of the economy. The main forms are TNCs and joint ventures.

6. International cooperation in the service sector is international relations, where the main commodity object is various types of services.

The world export of services in 2011 amounted to 8295 billion dollars.

7. International scientific and technical cooperation- these are relations for the exchange of the results of research and development work and their joint implementation by countries.

8. International transport relations- this is the relation to the movement (transportation) of goods and people from one country to another.

The core of modern MEO is international economic activity economic entities, primarily enterprises. The activities of the latter are aimed at obtaining certain economic results, primarily profit.

There are enterprises whose activity is mainly focused on the national market. Foreign economic relations for such enterprises in the system of priorities of their activities are of secondary importance. Other enterprises consider foreign economic activity as a necessary factor in their effective functioning. Some of them focus on the world market are considered the starting principle of their activities. And, finally, there are firms that "work" exclusively for the foreign market.

The activity of enterprises in the international market is carried out in the following forms:

1. Export and import of goods and services.

This is often the firm's first foreign trade transaction. This operation involves, as a rule, minimal obligations and the least risk for the company's production resources, and requires relatively low costs. For example, firms can increase their exports by utilizing their excess capacity, minimizing the need for additional capital investment.

2. Contractual, cooperation agreements(licensing, franchising).

In licensing, a firm (licensor) enters into a relationship with a foreign firm (licensee) offering rights to use a manufacturing process, trademark, patent, know-how in exchange for a license fee.

Franchising - one of the ways of cooperation (primarily international) in the sale of goods and services of a fairly well-known company (franchisor) through a marketing organization specially created with its participation (franchisee) due to the franchisee's right to use the trademark and know-how of the franchisor.

Thus, the well-known manufacturer of copying equipment, Xerox, having a reliable reputation, is creating a network of sales enterprises in various countries for the joint promotion of various services for copying printed materials on the market. "Xerox" requires national partners to strictly implement the technology of rendering services; finances the purchase or rental of premises by partners; trains local staff; oversees the proper use of the brand name by partners.

Franchising of goods and services is used by such well-known companies: mcdonald's Corporation, Singer Corporation, The Coca-Cola Company, Hilton Worldwide. Franchising is most widely used in the service sector, tourism, home appliance service, fast food, auto repair.

Often enterprises buy foreign licenses and turn to franchising after they have achieved success in exporting their products to a foreign market.

3. Economic activity abroad

(Research work, banking, insurance, contract manufacturing, rent). Contract manufacturing provides for the conclusion by the company of a contract with a foreign manufacturer, which can produce goods that can be sold by the specified company. Lease provides for the provision by the lessor for temporary use to the lessee of property for an agreed rent for a certain period in order to obtain commercial benefits.

The range of goods for rent is quite wide: cars and trucks, aircraft, tankers, containers, computers, communications equipment, standard industrial equipment, warehouses, i.e. movable and immovable property, which refers to fixed assets.

4. Portfolio s * direct investment abroad.

Investment activity abroad may be associated with the creation of an enterprise's own production branch; investing in shares of an existing foreign company; investing in real estate, government securities.

The above classification of forms of international entrepreneurial activity is rather conditional. For example, economic activity abroad (3) is almost always accompanied by the flow of investments there (4).

The concept of international economic relations

Definition 1

International economic relations (IER) - the relationship between various agents of the world economy. Under the agents of the world economy are understood states and government organizations, interstate associations, companies and individuals, as well as various non-profit and public organizations.

The concept of international economic relations includes monetary, financial, trade, production relations and others. The most common form of international economic relations are monetary and financial, as they are characteristic of all participants in the world economic system.

The key characteristic of modern international economic relations is the process of globalization. It is this process that owes its origin to the various international organizations that control various aspects of the IER.

International economic relations are characterized by a number of problems, the solution of which is jointly carried out jointly by the forces of different states and supranational associations. Among these problems:

Creation and regulation of free economic zones;
Organization of international transport corridors;
Internet economy.

International relations also make it possible to solve many social, environmental and other problems that are significant for the entire world community and have an indirect impact on the economic situation in the world.

MEO forms

International economic relations are based on the principle of international division of labor (specialization).

Definition 2

The international division of labor is the specialization of each country in those products in the production of which it has a relative advantage (cheaper factors of production or better conditions compared to other countries).

Depending on the development and depth of the international division of labor, various forms of international economic relations are distinguished:

International trade is historically the most important and original type of international economic relations. World trade includes the sale of finished products, machinery and equipment, raw materials and services. The structure of world trade is constantly changing. Currently, there is a tendency to increase the share of manufacturing products. A significant characteristic of world trade is the unevenness of its geographical distribution;
International movement of capital and international lending - export and import of capital within different countries. The key exporters of capital in the world are the United States of America, Japan, Great Britain, Germany;
International scientific and technological development - the exchange of scientific and technical knowledge, the implementation of joint scientific developments and projects;
International cooperation - the creation of joint ventures or the implementation of projects, mutually beneficial cooperation between organizations of different countries to achieve common goals;
International currency relations, etc.

Current trends in the development of international economic relations

The development of international economic relations in modern conditions can be characterized by three key trends:

International economic integration;
Globalization;
Transnationalization.

Definition 3

International economic integration is the convergence of national economies and the unification of the processes taking place in them on a global scale.

International economic integration is the interaction of the economies of different countries at various levels and in various forms through the development of mutually beneficial ties. With the help of international economic integration, it is possible to ensure a joint solution of world economic problems. International economic integration most often takes the form of agreements between different states, the regulation of which is carried out by interstate institutions.

Definition 4

Globalization of international relations is the strengthening of interdependence and mutual influence of various spheres of activity in the field of economic relations, including various spheres of public life.

The manifestation of globalization at the microeconomic level is expressed in the transnationalization of companies, the expansion of their activities outside the domestic market. It is transnational corporations that are the basis of globalization and its driving force. Modern trends in the development of international economic relations indicate an increase in their importance in the modern world. MEOs have an impact on many processes in the modern world, covering the actions of all existing economic agents.

INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY in Moscow.

(humanitarian)

KRASNODAR BRANCH.

Faculty of Economics.

Coursework in economic theory

on the topic: "The main forms of international economic relations"

Completed:

economics student

faculty group F-62

Larina Maria Sergeevna

scientific adviser

Lychak G.V.

Krasnodar 2007.

Introduction

1. International economic relations

2. Main forms of international economic relations

2.1 World trade

2.2 International capital market

2.3 International labor migration

2.4 World monetary system

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

The world economy and relations between the states of the planet are very dynamic and objectively develop in the direction of world economic development. It can be assumed that in the near future, international economic relations based on the global division of labor will also become a decisive factor in achieving the material well-being and spiritual growth of people in all countries.

No modern country can do without the development of foreign economic relations. In order to sufficiently fully satisfy social needs, it is necessary to rely expediently on the international division of labor and actively exchange goods and various kinds of services between countries. In principle, this is the relevance of the topic I have chosen.

The purpose and objective of my term paper is to clarify a particular problem of international economic relations in general, to consider these problems (the main forms: world trade, international capital market, international labor migration, world monetary system) from different points of view.

1. International economic relations

International economic relations (IER) are the connections of numerous economic entities of individual countries or their groups regarding the production and exchange on an international scale of various kinds of objects - goods, services, capital and labor. These relations are carried out in the process of participation of national enterprises and companies in the international division of labor (IDL). The implementation of the IER is also influenced by political, socio-economic, legal and other factors.

The mechanism for the implementation of international economic relations at the macro level includes organizational, legal norms and instruments for their implementation (international economic treaties and agreements, international trade organizations, etc.), the relevant activities of international economic organizations aimed at achieving the goals of the coordinated development of international economic relations.

International practice shows that modern international economic relations require significant, permanent supranational, interstate regulation.

The mechanism for the implementation of international economic relations at the micro level includes a system of international marketing and organization and technology of foreign economic activity. With all the resemblance to general (internal) marketing, international marketing is a specific tool for managing entrepreneurship at the international level. Its specificity is manifested, first of all, in the methods of studying the characteristics of national markets, as well as world markets for certain goods and services.

The international division of labor is the objective basis for the international exchange of goods, services, knowledge, the development of industrial, scientific, technical, commercial and other cooperation between all countries of the world, regardless of their economic development and the nature of the social system. The essence of MRI is to reduce production costs and maximize customer satisfaction. It is MRI that is the most important material prerequisite for establishing fruitful economic cooperation between states on a global scale.

The international division of labor can be defined as an important stage in the development of the social territorial division of labor between countries, which is based on the economically advantageous specialization of the production of individual countries in certain types of products and leads to the mutual exchange of production results between them in certain quantitative and qualitative ratios. MRI plays an increasing role in the implementation of expanded production processes in the countries of the world, ensures the interconnection of these processes, forms the appropriate international proportions in the sectoral and territorial-country aspects.

In any socio-economic conditions, the value is formed from the costs of the means of production, payment for the necessary labor and surplus value, then all goods entering the market, regardless of their origin, participate in the formation of international value, world prices. Goods are exchanged in proportions that obey the laws of the world market, including the law of value. The implementation of the advantages of MRI in the course of the international exchange of goods and services provides any country, under favorable conditions, with the difference between the international and national value of exported goods and services. Among the universal motives for participation in MRI, the use of its capabilities is the need to solve the global problems of mankind through the joint efforts of all countries of the world.

2. Main forms of international economic relations

The main forms of MEO include:

world trade (see paragraph 2.1);

international capital market (see paragraph 2.2);

international labor migration (see paragraph 2.3);

world monetary system (see paragraph 2.4).

2.1 World trade (M.T)

The traditional and most developed form of international economic relations is world trade. Trade accounts for about 80% of the total volume of international economic relations.

For any country, the role of M.T. hard to overestimate. In modern conditions, the active participation of the country in M.T. is associated with significant advantages: it allows more efficient use of the resources available in the country, to join the world achievements of science and technology, to carry out structural restructuring of its economy in a shorter time, and also to meet the needs of the population more fully and in a variety of ways.

In this regard, it is of considerable interest to study both theories that reveal the principles of the optimal participation of national economies in world commodity exchange, the factors of competitiveness of individual countries in the world market, and the objective patterns of development of M.T. M.T is a form of communication between producers of different countries, arising on the basis of MRI, and expresses their mutual economic dependence. The literature often gives the following definition: "World trade is the process of buying and selling between buyers, sellers and intermediaries in different countries." M.T includes exports and imports of goods, the ratio between which is called the trade balance. The UN statistical reference books provide data on the volume and dynamics of M.T. as the sum of the value of exports of all countries of the world.

Structural shifts taking place in the economies of countries under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, specialization and cooperation of industrial production enhance the interaction of national economies. This contributes to the activation of M.T. World trade, which mediates the movement of all intercountry commodity flows, is growing faster than production. According to foreign trade studies, for every 10% increase in world production, there is a 16% increase in the volume of M.T. This creates more favorable conditions for its development. When there are disruptions in trade, the development of production slows down. The term “foreign trade” refers to the trade of a country with other countries, consisting of paid import (import) and paid export (export) of goods.

Diverse foreign trade activities are subdivided according to commodity specialization into trade in finished products, trade in machinery and equipment, trade in raw materials and trade in services.

World trade is called the paid cumulative trade between all countries of the world. However, the concept of world trade is also used in a narrower sense: for example, the total trade turnover of industrialized countries, the total trade turnover of developing countries, the total trade turnover of the countries of a continent, region, for example, the countries of Eastern Europe, etc.

It is in the interest of each country to specialize in the industry in which it has the greatest advantage or the least weakness, and for which the relative advantage is greatest.

The stable, sustainable growth of international trade was influenced by a number of factors:

development of the international division of labor and internationalization of production;

scientific and technological revolution, contributing to the renewal of fixed capital, the creation of new sectors of the economy, accelerating the reconstruction of old ones;

active activity of transnational corporations in the world market;

regulation (liberalization) of international trade through the activities of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT);

liberalization of international trade.

development of trade and economic integration processes: elimination of regional barriers, formation of common markets, free trade zones;

obtaining political independence of the former colonial countries. Allocation from their number of "new industrial countries" with a model of the economy focused on the external market.

According to available forecasts, the high rates of world trade will continue in the future: by 2003, the volume of world trade increased by 50% and exceeded 7 trillion. Doll.

Since the second half of the 20th century, the uneven dynamics of foreign trade has become noticeable. This affected the balance of power between countries in the world market. The dominance of the United States was shaken. In addition to Germany, exports of other Western European countries also grew at a noticeable pace. In the 1980s, Japan made a significant breakthrough in international trade. By the end of the 1980s, Japan began to emerge as a leader in terms of competitiveness factors. In the same period, it was joined by the "new industrial countries" of Asia - Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan. However, by the mid-1990s, the United States was once again taking a leading position in the world in terms of competitiveness. They are closely followed by Singapore, Hong Kong, as well as Japan, which previously held the first place for six years.

The growth rate of trade in raw materials lags markedly behind the overall growth rate of world trade. This lag is due to the development of substitutes for raw materials, more economical, deepening of its processing. Industrialized countries have almost completely captured the market for high technology products. The share of industrial exports of developing countries in the total world volume in the early 90s was 16.3%.

Types of world trade.

1. Wholesale.

2. Commodity exchanges.

3. Futures exchanges.

4. Stock exchanges.

5. Fair.

6. Currency trading.

1. The main organizational form in the wholesale trade of countries with developed market economies is independent firms engaged in actual trade. But with the penetration of industrial firms into the wholesale trade, they created their own trading apparatus. Such are the wholesale branches of industrial firms in the USA: wholesale offices engaged in information services for various customers, and wholesale depots. Large German firms have their own supply departments, special bureaus or sales departments, wholesale warehouses. Industrial companies create subsidiaries to sell their products to firms and may have their own wholesale network. Direct links between production and retail trade are used, bypassing specialized wholesale firms. The organizational structure of wholesale trade in Japan has its own differences. It is based on trading houses that provide all stages of not only trade, but also the production of goods. They supply industrial enterprises with raw materials, sell their finished products, semi-finished products, coordinate the activities of related enterprises, participate in the development of new products, etc.

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INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY in Moscow.

(humanitarian)

KRASNODAR BRANCH.

Faculty of Economics.

Coursework in economic theory

on the topic: "The main forms of international economic relations"

Completed:

economics student

faculty group F-62

Larina Maria Sergeevna

scientific adviser

Lychak G.V.

Krasnodar 2007 .

Introduction

1. International economic relations

2. Main forms of international economic relations

2.1 World trade

2.2 International capital market

2.3 International labor migration

2.4 World monetary system

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

1. International economic relations

International economic relations (IER) are connections between numerous economic entities of individual countries or their groups regarding the production and exchange on an international scale of various kinds of objects - goods, services, capital and labor. These relations are carried out in the process of participation of national enterprises and companies in the international division of labor (IDL). The implementation of the IER is also influenced by political, socio-economic, legal and other factors.

International practice shows that modern international economic relations require significant, permanent supranational, interstate regulation.

2 . The main forms of international economic relationseny

The main forms of MEO include:

· world trade (see point 2.1);

· the international capital market (see point 2.2);

· international labor migration (see point 2.3);

· the world monetary system (see point 2.4).

2.1 World trade(M.T)

The traditional and most developed form of international economic relations is world trade. Trade accounts for about 80% of the total volume of international economic relations.

Diverse foreign trade activities are subdivided according to commodity specialization into trade in finished products, trade in machinery and equipment, trade in raw materials and trade in services.

It is in the interest of each country to specialize in the industry in which it has the greatest advantage or the least weakness, and for which the relative advantage is greatest.

The stable, sustainable growth of international trade was influenced by a number of factors:

1. development of the international division of labor and the internationalization of production;

2. Scientific and technological revolution, contributing to the renewal of fixed capital, the creation of new sectors of the economy, accelerating the reconstruction of old ones;

3. vigorous activity of transnational corporations in the world market;

4. regulation (liberalization) of international trade through the activities of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT);

5. liberalization of international trade.

6. development of trade and economic integration processes: elimination of regional barriers, formation of common markets, free trade zones;

7. obtaining political independence of the former colonial countries. Allocation from their number of "new industrial countries" with a model of the economy focused on the external market.

According to available forecasts, the high rates of world trade will continue in the future: by 2003, the volume of world trade increased by 50% and exceeded 7 trillion. Doll.

Types of world trade.

1. Wholesale.

2. Commodity exchanges.

3. Futures exchanges.

4. Stock exchanges.

5. Fair.

6. Currency trading.

An important parameter in the wholesale trade is the ratio of universal and specialized wholesalers. The trend towards specialization can be considered universal (in specialized firms, labor productivity is much higher than in universal ones). Specialization goes to the subject (commodity) and functional (i.e., limitation of the functions performed by the wholesaler) feature.

2. There are several main types of commodity exchanges:

1. Open - accessible to everyone. They sell real goods, so sellers and buyers directly participate in transactions. Intermediaries between them are possible, but not required. The activity of such exchanges is poorly regulated.

2. Open exchanges of a mixed type, already with intermediaries - brokers acting at the expense of the client, and dealers acting at their own expense.

3. Closed - trading in real goods. On them, sellers and buyers are not entitled to enter the “exchange ring” and thereby directly contact each other.

Currently, exchanges of real goods have been preserved only in some countries and have insignificant turnover. They are, as a rule, one of the forms of wholesale trade in goods of local importance, the markets of which are characterized by a low concentration of production, marketing and consumption, or are created in developed countries in an attempt to protect national interests in the export of goods that are essential for these countries. There are almost no exchanges of real goods left in the developed capitalist countries. But in certain periods, in the absence of other forms of organization of the market, exchanges of real goods can play a significant role.

3. The combination of elements of purchase, sale and credit in trade transactions and the interest of the merchant to get money as soon as possible for the largest possible part of the cost of the goods, regardless of its actual sale, were the most important factors in organizing a new type of exchange trading - futures.

Derivatives (futures) exchanges, where they trade not in goods, but in contracts for the supply of goods in the future. These can be closed futures exchanges, where only professionals directly trade and transactions of insurance of prices of contractual goods from the risk of their decline or, conversely, growth in the future prevail; open futures exchanges, where, in addition to professionals, sellers and buyers of contracts participate. Futures exchange trading is one of the most dynamic sectors of the capitalist economy. In modern conditions, it is futures trading that is the dominant form of exchange trading.

Futures exchanges allow not only to sell goods faster, but also to accelerate the return of advanced capital in cash in an amount that is as close as possible to the initially advanced capital plus the corresponding profit. In addition, the futures exchange provides savings in reserve funds that a businessman keeps in case of unfavorable conditions. In futures transactions, the full freedom of the parties is preserved only in relation to the price and limited in the choice of the delivery time of the goods; all other conditions are strictly regulated and do not depend on the will of the parties involved in the transaction. In this regard, futures exchanges are sometimes called the “price market” (that is, exchange values), in contrast to commodity markets (aggregate and unity), for example, real commodity exchanges, where the buyer and seller can agree on any terms of the contract. Precisely as a price market, the stock exchange meets the requirements of large-scale production at the highest stage of development of capitalism. The transformation of the exchange from the market of real goods into a kind of institution that serves and reduces the cost of trade and credit and financial transactions occurred as a result of increased concentration of sales, production and consumption of exchange goods (but while maintaining competition), the emergence and evolution of forms of financial capital. Currently, futures exchanges serve the needs of both small and large companies.

4. Securities are traded on international money markets, that is, on the stock exchanges of such major financial centers as New York, London, Paris, Frankfurt am Main, Tokyo, Zurich. Securities are traded during business hours on the stock exchange, or the so-called stock time. Only brokers (brokers) can act as sellers and buyers on the stock exchanges, who fulfill the orders of their clients, and for this they receive a certain percentage of the turnover. For trading in securities - stocks and bonds - there are so-called brokerage firms, or brokerage houses.

The exchange rate of shares and other securities depends solely on the relationship between supply and demand. The index of quotation (rates) of shares is an indicator of the prices of the most important shares on the exchanges. It usually includes stock prices of the largest enterprises.

5. One of the best ways to find contact between a producer and a consumer is through fairs, most often specialized ones, which allow the consumer to compare and choose the product that is most suitable for him in terms of consumer qualities and price, without spending huge efforts on finding information about the producers of the goods he needs. At thematic fairs, manufacturers exhibit their goods “in person” at the exhibition areas, and the consumer has the opportunity to choose, buy or order the goods he needs right on the spot. After all, the fair is a vast exhibition, where stands with goods and services are distributed according to topics, industries, destinations, etc. Therefore, anyone, having orientated on the topics of the exhibitions, can choose the one that will allow them to meet with manufacturers of interest to them. Accordingly, the manufacturer meets at the fair an audience that is interested in his product.

The role of fairs in the future will not decrease, but, on the contrary, will increase. So in Germany, fairs, as a rule, are held by organizing societies, for which this is their main activity. They belong to the state or communes, are independent of the participants and own the territory where the fairs are held. The largest of them have an annual turnover of 200 to 400 million marks.

In France, numerous industry exhibitions are organized by organizing societies, which in most cases do not have their own fairgrounds. Almost all such territories and buildings in Paris are administered or owned by the Chamber of Commerce and Industry. The vast majority of industry and specialized fairs are held in the French capital.

There is also a large number of exhibition organizers in the Italian fair economy, which are either owned by industrial associations or are private. The largest fair company in Italy is the Milan Fair, which has no competitors in terms of its annual turnover. According to official figures, about 30 percent of Italy's foreign trade is carried out through fairs, including 18 percent through Milan. It has 20 representative offices abroad. The share of foreign exhibitors and visitors averages 18 percent. The Madrid Fair is predicted to have a very big future (on a European scale). This fair, leaving Barcelona behind, has taken the first place in the country and now has the best fair infrastructure.

6. The annual turnover of world trade is almost 20 billion dollars, and the daily turnover of currency exchanges is approximately 500 billion dollars. This means that 90 percent of all foreign exchange transactions are not directly related to trading operations, but are carried out by international banks. All this happens during the day.

Foreign currency trading is understood as transactions for the sale of one currency for another or for the national currency at a rate predetermined by partners. The most important exchange rate is the dollar to the German mark. Banks that are ready to enter into foreign exchange transactions, call the rates at which they expect to buy or sell.

In addition to banks and large enterprises, brokers also take part in market operations. Brokers are only intermediaries and require a commission (courtage) for their services. Their firms are an important place for the exchange of all kinds of information. The foreign exchange market is the sum of telephone and teletype contacts between participants in foreign exchange trading.

2.2 Internationalth marketcaptainafishing

The market in which residents of different countries trade assets is called the international capital market (IRC). In fact, RTOs are not a single market - they are several closely interconnected markets where assets are exchanged on an international scale. International currency trading in the foreign exchange market is an important part of RTOs. The main actors in RTOs are the same as in the international currency market: commercial banks, large corporations, non-banking financial institutions, central banks and other government agencies. And like the foreign exchange market, RTOs operate within a network of global financial centers connected by complex communication systems. But the assets traded on RTOs, in addition to foreign currency bank deposits, also include shares and bonds of different countries.

When examining asset trading, it is often useful to distinguish between debt (bonds and bank deposits) and equity (stock) funds.

Structure of the international capital market:

1. Commercial banks. They play a central role in RTOs, not only because they set in motion the mechanism of international payments, but also because of the breadth of their financial activities. Bank liabilities consist primarily of deposits with various maturities, while assets are predominantly loans (to corporations and governments), deposits with other banks (interbank deposits) and bonds.

2. Corporations. It is a common practice for corporations, especially those of a multinational nature, to attract foreign sources of capital to finance their investments. To raise funds, corporations may sell blocks of shares that entitle the owners to a share of the corporation's assets, or they may resort to debt financing. Corporate bonds are often denominated in the currency of the financial centers where they are offered for sale.

3. non-banking financial institutions. Insurance companies, pension funds and mutual funds became important participants in RTOs when they turned to foreign assets to diversify their portfolios. A particularly important role is played by investment banks, which are not banks at all, but specialize in subscription sales of corporate stocks and bonds.

4. Central banks and other government bodies. Typically, central banks are included in the global financial markets through foreign exchange intervention. In addition, it is not uncommon for other government entities to borrow funds from abroad.

With the current structure of RTOs, there is a risk of financial destabilization, which can only be reduced through close cooperation of bank controllers in many countries.

RTOs provide residents of different countries with the opportunity to diversify their portfolios by trading risky assets.

In addition, by ensuring the rapid dissemination of international information about the investment opportunities that exist in the world, the market can contribute to the distribution of world savings in the most productive way. Economic integration is the process of economic interaction between countries, leading to convergence of economic mechanisms, taking the form of interstate agreements and coordinated by interstate bodies.

Integration processes lead to the development of economic regionalism, as a result of which certain groups of countries create among themselves more favorable conditions for trade, and in some cases for interregional movement of factors of production, than for all other countries.

The preconditions for integration are as follows: · Similar levels of economic development and degree of market maturity of the integrating countries. With rare exceptions, interstate integration develops either between industrial countries or between developing countries.

2.3 Interatpopular labor migration

The world community, which until recently did not directly feel the size, features and consequences of migration processes at the international level, is faced with the need to coordinate the efforts of many countries to resolve acute situations and collectively regulate migration flows. The last decade of our century is characterized by the fact that the countries-importers and countries-exporters of labor resources are making significant adjustments to their migration policy.

Modern international labor migration is characterized by the activation and growth of the influence of labor exporting countries, which use various methods and means to achieve the goals of emigration. International labor migration is the process of moving labor resources from one country to another in order to find employment on more favorable terms than in the country of origin. In addition to economic motives, the process of international migration is also determined by political, ethnic, cultural, family and other considerations. Thus, the international migration of labor is part of a broad phenomenon - the international migration of the population, when this process is not directly related to employment.

International migrants fall into 3 main categories:

Immigrants and non-immigrants legally admitted to the country. For countries that traditionally accept immigrants, the 80s - 90s. were a period of high levels of immigration;

Contract migrant workers. them by the end of the 90s. there were more than 25 million people in the world. Many countries depend on foreign labor.

· illegal immigrants. Their number in the late 90s. exceeded 30 million people. Almost all industrialized countries have illegal immigrants. Some of them cross the border, others remain in a foreign country with expired visas; they usually replace jobs at the bottom of the labor hierarchy.

According to rough estimates, the annual migration balance by the mid-90s was approximately 1 million people. According to forecasts, in the coming years, due to the stabilization of the world economy, the balance will decrease.

The volume of annual cash flows associated with international migration is measured in hundreds of billions of dollars and is quite comparable in scale with annual foreign direct investment (Table 1).

Developed countries account for approximately 9/10 of all labor income payments to non-resident foreign workers and 2/3 of all private unpaid remittances, while all developing countries account for only 1/10 and 1/3, respectively. As part of the cash flows associated with labor migration, workers' remittances account for about 62%, labor income - about 31% and the movement of migrants - about 7%.

Table 1. Cash flows associated with labor migration (in billions of dollars)

The largest payments of labor income to non-resident individuals are made by Switzerland, Germany, Italy, Japan, Belgium, and the USA. In the developing world, South Africa, Israel, Malaysia, and Kuwait most actively use foreign labor. The largest transfers of a private nature are carried out in the main developed countries (USA, Germany, Japan, Great Britain) and in the newly industrialized countries and oil-producing countries (Korea, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela). The main recipients of transfers from abroad are developed countries, mainly due to the transfer of part of the salaries of employees of foreign divisions of TNCs, military personnel stationed abroad. In many developing countries, private transfers account for 25-50% of merchandise export earnings (Bangladesh, Jamaica, Malawi, Morocco, Pakistan, Portugal, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Turkey). In Jordan, Lesotho, Yemen, remittances reach 10 - 50% of GNP.

From a theoretical point of view, the income of a labor exporting country is far from being limited to the transfers of emigrants from abroad, although they make up the bulk of them. Among other incomes that increase aggregate GNP and favorably affect the balance of payments are taxes imposed on firms for employment abroad, direct and portfolio investments of emigrants in the economy of their home country, cuts in education, health care and other social costs that covered for emigrants by other countries. Returning home, migrants are estimated to bring with them as much savings as they transferred through banks. Moreover, by acquiring work experience abroad and improving their skills, migrants bring this experience home, as a result of which the country receives additional qualified personnel for free.

Emigration has a very tangible positive impact on the economies of labor-surplus countries, since the departure of workers abroad reduces unemployment. Of course, one cannot deny the negative consequences of immigration, which in developed countries are associated primarily with a decrease in the real wages of unskilled labor as a result of an influx of immigrants.

Practically all countries to which more than 25,000 people immigrate a year are highly developed states with a GNP of more than $6,900 per capita.

The process of internationalization of production that is actively taking place all over the world is accompanied by the internationalization of the workforce. Labor migration has become a part of international economic relations. Migration flows rush from some regions and countries to others. Giving rise to certain problems, labor migration provides undoubted advantages to countries that receive and supply labor.

The intensification of migration processes observed in recent decades is expressed both in quantitative indicators and in qualitative ones: the forms and directions of movement of labor flows are changing.

The world community, which until recently did not directly feel the dimensions, features and consequences of migration processes at the international level, is faced with the need to coordinate the efforts of many countries to resolve acute situations and collectively regulate migration flows.

Mass migration has become one of the characteristic phenomena of the life of the world community in the second half of the twentieth century. International (external) migration exists in various forms: labor, family, recreational, tourist, etc. The international labor market covers multidirectional flows of labor resources crossing national borders. The international labor market brings together national and regional labor markets. The international labor market exists in the form of labor migration.

Types of labor migration:

Distinguish internal labor migration occurring between regions of one state, and external migration affecting several countries.

-International labor migration originated many centuries ago and has undergone major changes since then.

In balance of payments statistics, indicators related to labor migration are part of the current account balance and are classified under three headings:

Labor income, payments to employees - salaries and other payments in cash or in kind received by non-resident individuals for work performed for residents and paid for by them.

Workers' transfers are the transfer of money and goods by migrants to their relatives back home. In the case of shipment of goods, their estimated value is taken into account.

State regulation of the international labor market is carried out on the basis of the national legislation of the receiving countries and countries exporting labor, as well as on the basis of interstate and interdepartmental agreements between them. Regulation is carried out through the adoption of budget-funded programs aimed at limiting the influx of foreign labor (immigration) or encouraging immigrants to return to their homeland (re-emigration). Most host countries use a selective approach when regulating immigration. Screening of unwanted immigrants is carried out on the basis of requirements for qualifications, education, age, health status, on the basis of quantitative and geographical quotas, direct and indirect entry bans, temporary and other restrictions.

2.4 World monetary system

The world monetary system (MWS) is a historically established form of organization of international monetary relations, fixed by international agreements. MVS is a set of methods, tools and international bodies through which the payment and settlement turnover is carried out within the framework of the world economy. Its emergence and subsequent evolution reflect the objective development of capital internationalization processes that require adequate conditions in the international monetary sphere. The form of organization of currency relations is the international monetary system (IMS). The MVS has gone through four stages in its development.

First stage - gold standard system, which spontaneously developed by the end of the nineteenth century. It is characterized by the following features:

a certain gold content of the currency unit;

the convertibility of each currency into gold both inside and outside the borders of an individual state;

maintaining a rigid ratio between the national gold reserve and the domestic money supply.

Second phase - gold standard system- was adopted at the Genoa Conference (1922). It was later recognized by most capitalist countries. Under the gold exchange standard, banknotes are exchanged not for gold, but for mottoes (banknotes, bills, checks) of other countries, which can then be exchanged for gold. The dollar and the pound sterling were chosen as the motto currencies.

Third stage - Bretton Woods Monetary System received its design in Bretton Woods (USA) in 1944. Its main features:

gold retained the function of final monetary settlements between countries;

The US dollar became the reserve currency. He, along with gold, was recognized as a measure of the value of the currency of different countries, as well as an international means of payment;

the dollar was exchanged for gold by central banks and government agencies of other countries in the US Treasury at a rate of $35 per 1 troy ounce (31.1 g.). The dollar has firmly taken its place in foreign exchange relations, the scale of the use of gold has fallen sharply;

each country had to maintain a stable (officially established) exchange rate of its currency against any other currency. Market fluctuations in the exchange rate should not deviate from fixed gold and dollar parities by more than 1%;

interstate regulation of currency relations was carried out mainly through the International Monetary Fund (IMF), created at the same Bretton Woods conference.

By the end of the 1960s, the Bretton Woods system came into conflict with the growing internationalization of the world economy. The regime of the gold-dollar standard gradually began to turn into a dollar standard system. Meanwhile, the crisis of the US economy in the 60s - 70s, the growing importance of the Western European and Japanese economies led to a large concentration of dollars in Western Europe and Japan, which the United States could not provide gold liquidity. In the early 1970s, the Bretton Woods system collapsed.

Fourth stage. In 1976, an IMF meeting was held in Kingston (Jamaica), at which the foundations of the new monetary system of the capitalist economy were determined, which was defined as managed floating exchange rate systemRowls.

We highlight the main features of this system.

The function of gold as a measure of the value of exchange rates was abolished.

The SDR (Special Drawing Rights - SDR) standard was introduced - special drawing rights - with the aim of turning it into the main reserve stock, a collective currency.

Currency relations between countries began to be based on floating rates of national currencies. Fluctuations in exchange rates were due to two main factors:

the purchasing power of currencies in the domestic markets of countries;

the ratio of supply and demand of national currencies in international markets.

According to the requirements of the IMF, member countries should not allow sharp fluctuations in exchange rates and, if necessary, regulate them. One of the tools is foreign exchange interventions of the Central Bank (purchase or sale of foreign currency on the currency exchange).

According to the IMF classification, a country can choose the following exchange rate regimes: fixed, floating and mixed.

Against the backdrop of numerous problems associated with fluctuations in exchange rates, the experience of functioning of the zone of stable exchange rates in Europe is of particular interest in the world, which allows the countries included in this currency group to develop sustainably, despite the problems arising in the IAM.

Thanks to the introduction of fixed exchange rates in Western Europe, the so-called phenomenon of the currency snake appeared. A currency snake, or a snake in a tunnel, is a curve that describes the joint fluctuations in the exchange rates of the countries of the European Community relative to other currencies that are not included in this currency grouping.

Measures of state influence on the value of the exchange rate:

Currency interventions;

Discount policy;

protective measures.

The exchange rate has a great impact on international economic relations. First, it allows the producers of a given country to compare the costs of producing goods with world market prices. Thus, it is one of the benchmarks in the implementation of foreign economic relations, allows you to predict the financial results of economic activity. Secondly, the level of the exchange rate directly affects the economic situation of the country, which is manifested, in particular, in the state of its balance of payments. Thirdly, the exchange rate affects the redistribution of the world's gross domestic product between countries.

In an undeveloped form, the exchange of one national currency for the currency of another country existed for several centuries in the form of a money changer, but in a developed economy, the exchange of currencies takes place in the currency markets. At the end of the 20th century, the volume of daily currency trading exceeded 1.2 trillion. dollars. Of course, such a large volume cannot be explained only by the needs of international trade and investment flows. Of great importance is currency speculation, that is, the desire to make a profit on a correctly guessed future movement of the exchange rate. Profit or loss can be hundreds of millions of dollars.

Conclusion

The world economy and relations between the states of the planet are very dynamic and objectively develop in the direction of world economic development. It can be assumed that in the near future international economic relations based on the global (European) division of labor will also become a decisive factor in achieving material well-being and spiritual growth of people in all countries.

International economic relations are carried out according to the laws of a single market between countries and are based on the global division of labor and the economic isolation of business and business partners.

No modern country can do without the development of foreign economic relations. In order to sufficiently fully satisfy social needs, it is necessary and expedient to rely on the international division of labor and actively exchange goods and various kinds of services between countries.

If we consider world trade in terms of its development trends, then on the one hand, there is a clear strengthening of international integration, the gradual erasure of borders and the creation of various interstate trade blocs, on the other hand, a deepening of the international division of labor, the gradation of countries into industrialized and backward. It is impossible not to notice the ever-increasing role of modern means of communication in the process of exchanging information and concluding transactions themselves. Trends towards the depersonalization and standardization of goods allow accelerating the process of concluding transactions and the circulation of capital.

Migration of the labor force is the relocation of the able-bodied population from one state to another for a period of more than a year, caused by economic and other reasons, and can take the form of emigration (departure) and immigration (entry). Migration of the labor force leads to equalization of wage levels in different countries. As a result of migration, the total volume of world production increases due to more efficient use of labor resources due to their cross-country redistribution.

List of used literature:

1. Avdokushin E.F. International Economic Relations, Textbook. M.-1999

2. Vinogradov V.V. Economy of Russia. Tutorial. - M.: Jurist, 2001

3. Kan E.A., Chekshin V.I. Introduction to the World Economy: Textbook. M.: "MODEK" 2002

4. Kireev A.S. International economy. T 1.2. M, 1998

5. World economy: Textbook for universities / edited by Professor I.P. Nikolaeva. - 2nd edition, revised and supplemented - M .: UNITI - DANA, 2003

6. Semenov K.A. International Economic Relations: A Course of Lectures. - M.:

"GUARDS", 1999

7. Rumyantsev A.P., Rumyantseva N.S. International Economics - Lectures. MAUP.1999

8. Khalevinskaya E.D., Crozet I. World Economy: Textbook / edited by Khalevinskaya E.D. M.: Jurist, 2000

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Option 9

1. International economic relations.

1.1. International economic relations. Main signs. 3

1.2. Basic forms of international economic relations. 6

2. International trade as the basis of international economic relations. eight

3. Test task. thirteen

4. Test task. thirteen

5. Task. 14

6. List of references. 15

1. International economic relations.

International economic relations

The existence of any economy in modern realities is impossible without international cooperation and diverse cooperation between countries. No state today can exist in isolation and remain successful at the same time. The development of international economic relations is the key to the normal functioning of the entire world economy. What is the global economy and how does it work?

World economy- a global and complex structured system, which includes the economy of different states. The impetus for its formation was the territorial (and later global) division of human labor. What it is? In simple words: country "A" has all the resources for the production of cars, and in country "B" the climate allows you to grow grapes and fruits. Sooner or later, these two states agree on cooperation and "exchange" of the products of their activities. This is the essence of the geographical division of labor.

The world economy is nothing but the union of all national industries and structures. But international economic relations are just a tool for their rapprochement, ensuring their cooperation. This is how the world economy was born. At the same time, international economic relations were equally aimed at both the division of labor (which resulted in the specialization of different countries in the production of certain products) and the unification of efforts (which resulted in cooperation between states and economies). As a result of the cooperation of industries, large multinational companies arose.

Relationships of an economic nature between countries, companies or corporations are usually called international economic relations (abbreviated as IER).

Participation in international trade provides the country with the opportunity to increase the level of satisfaction of social needs.

International trade carried out in modern conditions has the following principles:

Economic relations between trade participants are based on the absence of interference in the internal affairs of the state, self-determination and respect for sovereign equality.

There should be no discrimination based on differences in socio-economic systems.

Countries have the right to exercise sovereign trade.

Social progress and economic development contribute to the strengthening of peaceful relations, therefore, should be achieved by the joint efforts of members of the international community. World trade is governed by rules that do not prevent social and economic progress. Countries achieve cooperation through the conclusion of international treaties.

A special role in the regulation of international trade is played by multilateral agreements operating within the framework of:

§ GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade)

§ WTO (World Trade Organization)

§ GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services)

§ TRIPS (Treaty-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights)

International trade must be beneficial for both parties and cannot contain actions that negatively affect the interests of other countries. It is necessary to promote the development of integration and other forms of cooperation of an economic nature between countries at the stage of development.

International economic relations, like any other, have their own specific subjects.

The subjects of international financial relations can be:

ü countries;

ü international financial organizations (including financing and controlling ones);

ü insurance companies;

ü individual enterprises or corporations;

ü investment groups and funds;

the individual individuals.

The main features of the MEO

International economic relations are a continuation of economic relations at the local level, however, with quantitative indicators of a completely different scale. Moreover, international economic organizations retain their belonging to a market economy, and, therefore, are subject to its principles.

Among the signs of MEO belonging to a market economy are the following:

· The classical laws of supply and demand apply to the MEO.

· Free competition is characteristic of MEO.

· The exchange of goods (as well as, for example, the movement of labor resources) is due to cash flows.

· The fundamental principle of MEO is the division of labor.

· Each of the IEO participants is characterized by economic isolation.

· The development of IEO is monitored by international structures (for example, the World Trade Organization - WTO).

· In the area of international economic relations, monopolization is possible - in the event that the sale of one of the types of goods is concentrated in the hands of a particular state.

Basic forms of international economic relations.

International economic relations play a particularly important role in modern times, when the level of specialization of countries is so high that due to the export of goods and services, some of them provide the predominant part of income.

The main forms of international economic relations are:

Main forms of MEO Figure 1.

world trade - the oldest form of international relations, but at the same time it is also the most developing - in terms of growth, it surpasses, for example, industrial production. Interestingly, the main characteristic of world trade is considered to be its unevenness - 70% of its turnover falls on developed countries, and more than 40% of them - on European countries. It is customary to classify international trade according to the object - trade in products, machines, raw materials, services are distinguished.

Credit and financial relations. This form is younger - it includes capital investments and international loans. Before the Second World War, the main exporters of capital were the developed countries of Europe - Great Britain, France, and the importers - the colonies of these countries, for example, French Guiana. Now 70% of the total volume of money exchange falls on developed countries, the rest - on developing countries, including the CIS countries.

International Services. Previously, international services meant only transport services, however, over the past decades, new types have appeared - advertising, engineering, financial. The share of international services in international economic relations in terms of cost is approximately 20%. More than 80% of all international services are currently provided by the developed countries of the West.

Industrial collaboration implies international specialization and piece-by-piece production. Thanks to industrial cooperation, several countries can be involved in the manufacture of one type of product at once - one supplies raw materials, the second manufactures parts, the third is engaged in assembly. The advantage of industrial collaboration lies in the most efficient use of available resources.

Scientific and technical relations as a form of MEO are conditioned by NTR. This form of international economic relations is expressed in the exchange of the latest technical information and the sale and purchase of developments, as well as in the joint implementation of projects. The countries of Western Europe and the USA succeed in scientific and technical relations as a form of international economic relations.

international tourism . This includes services for the delivery of tourists to the country of destination, the offer of hotels and meals. International tourism is important not only for developed countries (Spain), but also for developing countries (Croatia, Cyprus). For many of the developing countries, international tourism is the main source of income.

All these forms of international economic relations are not the same in their role and significance for the world economy. So, in modern conditions, it is precisely monetary and credit relations that hold the leadership. International trade and monetary and credit relations.

2. International trade as the basis of international economic relations.

International trade is understood as a system of export-import relations between countries that show the openness of the economy.

International trade affects the state of the national economy by performing the following functions:

Filling in the missing elements of national production, which makes the "consumer basket" of economic agents of the national economy more diverse;

Transformation of the natural-material structure of GDP due to the ability of external factors of production to modify and diversify this structure;

Effect-forming function, i.e. the ability of external factors to influence the growth of the efficiency of national production, the maximization of national income while reducing the socially necessary costs of its production.

In international trade, there are two main method(method) of trading: direct method - transaction directly between the producer and the consumer; indirect method - transaction through an intermediary. The direct method brings certain financial benefits: it reduces costs by the amount of the commission to the intermediary; reduces the risk and dependence of the results of commercial activities on the possible dishonesty or insufficient competence of the intermediary organization; allows you to constantly be in the market, take into account changes and respond to them. But the direct method requires considerable commercial skill and trading experience.

The country's participation in international trade is due to:

1) the level of its economic development;

2) the size of the territory;

3) population size;

There are three main indicators of GDP:

Nominal. It characterizes simply the total annual cost of services and products in the country at current market prices. In this case, inflation is not taken into account. What does this mean? Suppose nominal GDP grew by 10% in a year. It seems to be good. But inflation was 12%. In fact, it “ate” the indicated growth, that is, objectively, the economic situation did not improve, on the contrary, it became worse.

The real one just takes into account this moment, and shows the real growth in production, not associated with an increase in consumer prices. In the example above, it will be negative. The ratio of the first (nominal) to the second (real) is called the deflator.

Per capita. This is the indicator that best reflects the well-being of citizens. It is calculated as the ratio of GDP to the total population of a country or region. In addition, it also takes into account the demographic component, which is very important for some estimates.

The main data are taken for 2016 (at the end of the year) from such Internet resources as the CIA statistics website.

Table No. 1. Economic indicators for the country for 2016

Having calculated the indicator of GDP per capita, one can see that the well-being in Russia leaves much to be desired and amounts to $0.77 million. We need to work on the economic situation as a whole. As we can see the US GDP per capita is $5.71 million , which shows that the economy of this country is more developed.

The following indicators are most often used as indicators used to measure the degree of openness of the economy:

Export quota

Import quota

Foreign trade quota

Sometimes elasticity coefficients of exports (to assess the dynamics of the openness of the economy) or imports in relation to GDP are also used.

Export quota is a quantitative indicator that characterizes the importance of exports for the economy as a whole and for individual industries for certain types of products. Within the framework of the entire national economy, it is calculated as the ratio of the value of exports (E) to the value of the gross domestic product (GDP) for the corresponding period as a percentage: Ke = E / GDP * 100%.

Import quota is a quantitative indicator that characterizes the importance of imports for the national economy and individual industries for various types of products. Within the framework of the entire national economy, the import quota is calculated as the ratio of the value of imports (I) to the value of GDP: Ki = I / GDP * 100%.

Foreign trade quota is defined as the ratio of the total value of exports and imports, divided in half, to the value of GDP as a percentage: Kv = E + I / 2GDP * 100%.

Another option Kv \u003d (E + I) / GDP * 100% * 0.5

Shows the importance of foreign trade relations for the country, and not just exports and imports. All indicators do not show the country's share of world exports.

Elasticity coefficients of exports and imports in relation to GDP show how much exports or imports increase with an increase in the country's GDP by 1% and are calculated as the ratio of the percentage change in the value of exports (or imports) for the period under review to the percentage change in the country's GDP for the same period.

Ee = Delta E(%) / Delta GDP(%)

Eu = Delta I(%) / Delta GDP(%)

The value of these coefficients if they are greater than > 1 is interpreted as strengthening the open nature of the economy, if less< 1 то наоборот.

International trade in goods takes place in a wide variety of forms. Forms of international trade are types of foreign trade operations. These include: wholesale trade; counter trade; commodity exchanges; futures exchanges; international trades; international auctions; trade fairs.

Countries participating in international trade derive a number of obvious benefits from this, namely:

Ø the possibility of growth and development of mass production within a particular national economy;

Ø the emergence of new jobs for the population;

Ø healthy competition, which is present in one form or another in the world market, stimulates the processes of modernization of enterprises and industries;

Ø The proceeds from the export of goods and services can be accumulated and used to further improve production processes.

Negative consequences of economic openness:

Ø Increased exposure to global financial and economic crises, changes in global commodity markets and, in a certain sense, increases the risk of instability of the national economy.

Ø In a number of cases, foreign competition leads to the destruction of individual industries and even entire sectors of the domestic economy.

Ø The dependence of the national economy on imports is increasing, while imports are here in the broadest sense (goods, capital, technology). There are strategically important industries where foreign capital should not be allowed in, as well as strategically important goods that need to be controlled. If imports exceed 30%, then this is a signal that the situation in certain groups of goods needs to be corrected.

3. Country A sells a natural resource (natural gas, coal, oil) to country B. Such relationships in the global economy include:

a) to the international division of labor;

b) to international labor cooperation;

c) to the international division of other factors of production:

G) all of the above answers are correct.

4. Traditional quantitative indicators of the openness of the economy are:

a ) export quota;

b) export quotas;

v) import quota;

d) import quotas;

e) foreign trade quota;

f) foreign trade quotas;

g) volume of re-export;

h) volume of compensation transactions.

Country A per unit of resources can produce 10 tons of wheat or 10 tons of coffee. country B - 40 tons of wheat or 60 tons of coffee. Domestic consumption in country A is at point (5, 50), in country B - at point (15, 180). Which country will export wheat?

product name	A	V
Wheat, tons per resource unit
Coffee, tons per unit of resources

1) find first the comparative costs of producing both products in A and B.

1t. Wheat \u003d 1 t. Coffee

1 t. Coffee \u003d 1t. Wheat

1t. Wheat \u003d 1.5 tons. Coffee

1 t. Coffee \u003d 0.7 t. Wheat

Therefore, A will specialize in the production and export of wheat, since the comparative cost of this product is less in it. And country B will export coffee.

2) With a given world exchange proportion, A, producing wheat to the maximum - a product of specialization, will be able to produce 10 tons of wheat and, leaving 5 tons for domestic consumption, exchange the remaining 5 tons for 5 * 4/3 \u003d 20/3 \u003d 6 2/3 tons coffee is more than its internal consumption if it had not specialized and produced everything necessary for consumption itself. Country B will produce 60 tons of coffee, leave 30 tons for domestic consumption, and exchange the remaining 30 for 30 * 3/4 = 90/4 = 22.5 tons of wheat, which also exceeds its capabilities in a natural non-exchange economy. This is the effect of specialization - the achievement of a higher level of consumption.

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