Conflict (from lat. conflictus) is defined by most researchers as a form of interaction characterized by the presence of opposite tendencies in subjects of interaction. As a rule, the underlying "collision", opposition (which is also synonymous with "incompatibility", "struggle", "disagreements", etc.) is emphasized. However, as rightly pointed out by N.V. Grishin in the monograph "The Psychology of Conflict" (2008), such a broad interpretation leads to the fact that a very wide range of phenomena falls under the concept of conflict, for example, an armed clash of neighboring states, a family quarrel, an official conflict, a strike at an enterprise, a personal drama In all these situations, there is a clash of conflicting or incompatible interests, positions, tendencies, etc. Based on the essential, invariant signs of conflict present in their various forms, the author gives following definition: a conflict is a bipolar phenomenon (opposition of two principles), manifesting itself in the activity of the parties, aimed at overcoming contradictions, and the parties are represented by an active subject (s). This means conscious, active actions (at least potential), on the part of each of the parties and transfers the subject of consideration into the realm of real human relations (as opposed to, for example, contradictions) (Grishina N.V., 2008, pp. 23-24 ).
The notion that conflict is always a negative phenomenon, causing feelings of anxiety and confusion, a sign of ineffective organizational performance and poor management, has given way today to the understanding that conflict has not only destructive sides, but also constructive ones. Moreover, conflicts are not only possible, but also useful, and even desirable, because they help resolve opposition and clarify differences in points of view. L. Ivey (1995), author of a manual on business communication that has been translated in many countries, notes that managers often react like pessimists when they get into conflict situations. However, it is necessary to understand that problems and conflicts are both opportunities and prospects. In reality, it is precisely the different views on the creation of a new product, a large difference of opinion that can become a starting point for new ideas. Ability to creatively resolve conflict, place two incompatible ideas side by side and develop alternative approaches for their combination or synthesis distinguishes outstanding managers who have achieved success.
The famous American social psychologist D. Myers (1998) emphasizes the differences between the objective confrontation of the parties and its subjective reflection by the participants and defines the conflict as "the perceived incompatibility of actions and goals" (p. 632). He also focuses on the positive aspects of conflict, saying that relationships or organizations in which there are no conflicts are likely to fade away. Conflict breeds responsibility, determination and indifference. When recognized and understood, they can stimulate the renewal and improvement of relationships between people. In the absence of conflict, people rarely realize and solve their problems.
So, we can talk about the existence of constructive and negative sides conflict.
The constructive side of the conflict:
- ? the conflict reveals shortcomings and contradictions, leads to their awareness, encourages the search for ways to solve problems;
- ? making informed decisions helps to solve problems associated with existing contradictions;
- ? interaction participants (or a group) in this way can show an active position in interaction with others, defend rights; solving a problem, taking into account the opinions of all parties, allows everyone to feel involved in its solution, increases responsibility, cohesion in the group;
- ? a joint decision is implemented faster and better;
- ? the parties gain experience of cooperation in resolving controversial issues;
- ? the practice of constructive conflict resolution reduces the fear of employees to openly express their opinions, including those that differ from those of senior officials; relations between people improve;
- ? people stop seeing disagreements as “evil,” always leading to bad consequences.
The destructive side of the conflict:
- ? the conflict carries an abundance of negative emotions, stress, anxiety, disappointment, guilt, etc., which impede effective interaction and decision-making, the likelihood of making impulsive or forceful decisions increases;
- ? there is a rise in tension interpersonal relationships in a group, the group can break up into separate, hostile groups; provoke unproductive, competitive relations between people, sometimes the conflict leads to violence and destruction of the personality;
- ? reinforce the idea of the opponent as an "enemy", of his position - only as negative, and of his position - as exclusively positive;
- ? reinforce the belief that "victory" in the conflict is more important than solving the real problem.
The concept and essence of the conflict.
Like many concepts, conflict has many definitions and interpretations. One of them defines conflict as a lack of agreement between two or more parties, which may be specific individuals or groups. Each side does everything to make its point of view or goal accepted, and prevents the other side from doing the same.
When people think about conflict, they most often associate it with aggression, threats, arguments, hostility, war, etc. As a result, there is an opinion that conflict is always an undesirable phenomenon, that it should be avoided if possible.
The modern point of view is that, even in well-managed organizations, some conflicts are not only possible, but even desirable. Of course, conflict is not always positive. In some cases, it can interfere with the satisfaction of the needs of the individual and the achievement of the goals of the organization as a whole. But in many situations, conflict helps to reveal a variety of points of view, provides additional information, helps to identify more alternatives or problems, etc. This makes the group's decision-making process more efficient, and also gives people the opportunity to express their thoughts and thereby satisfy their personal needs for respect and power. It can also lead to more effective implementation of plans, strategies and projects, since the discussion of different points of view on these documents takes place before their actual implementation. Thus, the conflict can be functional and lead to an increase in the effectiveness of the organization. Or it may be dysfunctional and result in decreased personal satisfaction, group collaboration, and organizational effectiveness.
The role of the conflict mainly depends on how effectively it is managed. To manage the conflict, it is necessary to understand the causes of the conflict situation. All too often, managers believe that the root cause of conflict is personal clash. However, subsequent analysis shows that other factors are "to blame".
There are four main types of conflict: intrapersonal conflict, interpersonal conflict, personality-group conflict, and intergroup conflict. We will look at them from the point of view of conflict in the organization.
All conflicts have several reasons. The main causes of conflict are: limited resources to be divided, interdependence of tasks, differences in goals, differences in ideas and values, differences in behavior, in the level of education, as well as poor communication.
Intrapersonal conflict- it an acute negative experience caused by the struggle of the structures of the inner world of the individual, reflecting contradictory connections with social environment and delayed decision making.
Intrapersonal conflict can arise as a result of role inconsistencies, i.e. production requirements are not consistent with the personal needs or values of a person, that one person is presented with conflicting requirements about what the result of his work should be, who is responsible for what, and an inadequate assessment of the results of work. Intrapersonal conflict can also be a response to work overload or underload. Research shows that this type of intrapersonal conflict is associated with low job satisfaction, low self-confidence and organization, and stress.
Interpersonal conflict- this is a situation of contradictions, disagreements, clashes between people.
This type of conflict is perhaps the most common. Interpersonal conflict can manifest itself as a clash of personalities. People with different personality traits, attitudes and values sometimes fail to get along with each other. It could also be the struggle of managers for limited resources, capital or labor, equipment use time, or project approval. Each of them believes that since resources are limited, he must convince the superiors to allocate these resources to him, and not to another leader.
So, in a company selling services, the director entrusted his deputy to interact with the chief accountant. It was possible to predict the development of the situation if the director paid attention to the character traits and family circumstances of both employees. The personal incompatibility between a young, successful deputy and an elderly single woman-accountant turned out to be so great that it made any communication between them impossible. If these people did not have to jointly solve problems in such a difficult area as finance, they could continue to work successfully for the good of the company. In this case, the director was forced to transfer his deputy to a managerial position in one of the branches.
Conflict between an individual and a group. Production teams set standards for behavior and performance. Everyone must comply with them in order to be accepted by an informal group and, thus, to satisfy their social needs. Conflict can arise between an individual and a group if that person takes a position that differs from that of the group. This situation can be seen as a source of conflict because one goes against the opinion of the group.
Intergroup conflict- interactions both between groups of people and between individual representatives of these groups, as well as any situations in which participants in communication interact in the intergroup dimension, perceiving each other and themselves as members of different groups.
In an intergroup conflict, the opposing sides are groups (small, medium or micro-groups). This confrontation is based on a clash of oppositely directed group motives (interests, values, goals). This is one of the essential features of such conflicts.
Organizations are made up of many groups, both formal and informal. Even in the best organizations, conflicts can arise between such groups.
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Conflict option | |
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Organization management - personnel |
Unsatisfactory communications; violation of legal norms; unsatisfactory working conditions; low wage etc. |
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Administration - trade unions |
Violation labor legislation from the administration; unsatisfactory working conditions; low wages, etc. |
|
Between departments within an organization |
Mutual dependence on the tasks performed; resource allocation; unsatisfactory communications; restructuring |
|
Conflict between organizations |
Breach of contractual obligations; struggle for resources, spheres of influence, sales markets, etc. |
|
Between microgroups within a team |
The opposite of interests, values, goals; ambitions of leaders |
Conflict management starts with anticipating them. And in order to foresee, it is necessary to know the reasons that most often lead to conflict situations.
Reasons leading to constructive conflicts
The reasons leading to constructive conflicts are shortcomings in the organization of production and management. Most often lead to conflicts:
1. dissatisfaction with wages;
2. unfavorable working conditions (for example, lack of ventilation, gas pollution, vibration, noise, drafts, uncomfortable temperature at the workplace, etc.);
3. inconsistency of rights and obligations;
4. irregularity of work (downtime, forced vacations, storming);
5. inconvenient work schedule;
6. omissions in technology (especially those from which the employee's earnings suffer, and not through his fault);
7. Insufficiency of tasks with resources (in particular, interruptions in the provision of raw materials, materials, components);
8.Lack of clarity in the distribution of responsibilities, in particular ineffective, too
vague or outdated job descriptions (that is, forgetting such a management principle: "It is preferable to manage with the help of instructions, not orders");
9. low level of labor and performance discipline;
10. conflict-generating (ie, contributing to the emergence of conflicts) organizational structures.
11. conflicting relationships or goals of technological and economic services (for example, services responsible for quantitative indicators, for the implementation of the plan, and services responsible for quality, - the department of technical control, etc.).
Positive resolution of constructive conflict- this is, first of all, the elimination of shortcomings, the reasons that led to it. And since these reasons are objective, reflecting the imperfection of the organization of production and management, the elimination of these reasons means the improvement of production and management.
Therefore, a positive resolution of constructive conflicts is beneficial to the cause. That is why they are considered constructive. Consequently, the leader should not leave these conflicts, but constantly work to resolve them, to deal with the elimination of the reasons leading to such conflicts. An attempt to get away from solving these problems leads to their deepening, to a fall in the authority of the leader, the emergence of alienation between him and his subordinates, to a deterioration of the situation in the team, to conflicts, personnel losses.
Reasons leading to destructive conflicts
Destructive conflicts are generated most often by subjective reasons. Such subjective reasons include:
Wrong actions of the leader;
Wrong actions of subordinates;
Wrong actions of both the leader and subordinates.
Most often, destructive conflicts arise with the wrong actions of both subordinates and a leader.
This is how a person is arranged that, first of all, he sees mistakes in others, and not in himself. But the leader is the one who, according to his position, is supposed to help subordinates to correct them.
errors. Therefore, it is necessary to dwell on the erroneous actions of the leaders.
1. Concept, types, structure of the conflict.
2. Strategies of behavior in a conflict situation.
Conflict is a collision of oppositely directed, incompatible tendencies in the consciousness of a single individual, in interpersonal interaction or interpersonal relationships of individuals or groups of people, associated with negative emotional experiences. From this definition it follows that the basis of conflict situations is a clash between oppositely directed interests, opinions, goals, different ideas about the way to achieve them. In psychology, there is a multivariate typology of conflict. For example, intrapersonal (between one's own sympathies and the duty to lead for0, interpersonal, between an individual and a group, between groups.
It is also possible to classify the conflict horizontally (between ordinary employees who are not subordinate to each other), vertically (between the boss and the subordinate) and mixed, in which both are represented. The most common conflicts are vertical and mixed. In this situation, each action of the leader is viewed through the prism of this conflict. Conflicts can arise from insufficient communication and understanding, incorrect assumptions about people's actions, differences in plans, interests, and assessments. There is also a classification of sweat by the nature of the reasons that caused the conflict. These reasons are as follows:
Peculiarities labor process
Psychological characteristics of human relationships, likes and dislikes, cultural and ethnic differences, poor communication, Wrong actions of the leader
Personal identity of group members, for example, inability to control emotions, aggressiveness, lack of communication, etc.
Conflicts can be distinguished both by their meaning to the organization and by the way they are resolved. Distinguish between constructive and destructive conflicts. Constructive conflicts are characterized by disagreements that affect the principled side, the problems of the life of the organization of its members and the resolution of which brings the organization to a new, higher and efficient way development. Destructive conflicts lead to negative, often destructive actions, which sometimes develop into squabbles, while using morally condemned methods of struggle; this dramatically reduces the efficiency of the group or organization.
Conflict stages:
Potential formation of conflicting interests, values, norms;
The transition of a potential conflict into a real one or the stage of awareness by the participants in the conflict of their correctly or falsely understood interests;
Conflicting actions; removal or resolution of the conflict.
Every conflict has a structure. There is an object of a conflict situation, associated either with organizational and technological difficulties, the specifics of remuneration, or with the specifics of the business and personal relations of the conflicting parties.
A conflict presupposes the presence of opponents, that is, specific persons. The next element of the conflict is the goals, subjective motives of its participants, conditioned by their views, beliefs, material and spiritual interests.
In addition, in the conflict it is necessary to distinguish the cause of the collision from its causes, which are often hidden. As long as all the above structural elements of the conflict exist, except for the reason, it cannot be eliminated. The conflict cannot be ended by forceful pressure or by persuasion, or by involving third parties. Or groups. Therefore, it is necessary to eliminate at least one of its structural elements.
Consider the prerequisites for the emergence of conflicts in the process of communication. The main ones are social and psychological prerequisites. For example disagreements due to the discrepancy between our reasoning and the reasoning of the other side. At the same time, understanding the point of view of the other does not mean agreeing with it, it only helps to narrow the conflict, but not to resolve it. Another example is the negative interpretation of the statements or actions of the other party. We are irritated by negative emotions addressed to us, and there is a desire to receive psychological compensation. Also, a negative reaction is caused by a condescending attitude, categoricalness, banter, a reminder of a losing situation. All this serves as a breeding ground for the emergence of a new conflict.
Next difficulty communication process, which can influence the emergence of a conflict, is that often people do not understand, do not hear each other.
There are also individual qualities (character traits) that create a person's tendency or predisposition to conflict situations. These qualities include:
2) the desire to always and by all means dominate
3) conservatism
4) excessive adherence to principles, when a principle is put more important than a person
5) unfounded criticism of other people
6) excessive emotionality, especially such qualities as anxiety, aggressiveness, stubbornness, irritability.
The conflict associated with these qualities usually has the character of psychological incompatibility. Also, for the appearance of incompatibility, it is enough to have differences in the needs, interests, goals of different people interacting. And also due to the fact that the group makes demands on the person that are at odds with those to which the person is tuned.
Given the difficulties in the process of communication, psychologists have developed a model of human behavior in a conflict situation from the point of view of its compliance with psychological standards. The constructive resolution of the conflict depends on following factors:
The adequacy of the perception of the conflict, that is, the assessment of the actions of the other side, not distorted by personal preferences
Openness and efficiency of communication, readiness for a comprehensive discussion of problems
Creating an atmosphere of mutual trust and cooperation
v real life it is difficult to find out the true cause of the conflict, as well as find an adequate way to resolve it. Therefore, it is advisable in a conflict situation to choose a strategy of behavior depending on the circumstances.
There are five strategies for behavior in a conflict situation.
The style of behavior in a particular conflict depends on how much a person wants to satisfy his own interests.
Competition or rivalry - striving for a one-sided win, but honestly and openly. This style is most typical for behavior in a conflict situation, as it is associated with the satisfaction, first of all, of one's own interests. Because of this, there is a desire to put pressure on a partner, to impose their own interests, ignoring the interests of the other side. It is usually used by a person with a strong will, authority, power. Also, the strategy is used if it seems to him obvious that the proposed solution is the best; if a person feels that he has no other choice or has nothing to lose, if he has to make an unpopular decision; if he interacts with subordinates who prefer an authoritarian style.
However, this strategy rarely yields long-term results. the losing party may sabotage a decision made against its will. Also, this style cannot be used in close relationships.
Collaboration is the most difficult of all styles, but also the most effective. Its advantage is that it finds the most acceptable solution for all parties and makes partners out of opponents. It means finding ways to involve all participants in the conflict resolution process. Where both sides benefit, they naturally tend to perform decisions taken... However, this style requires the ability to listen to the other side, to restrain emotions. This style is used if each of the approaches to the problem is important and does not allow for compromise solutions; when the main goal is to gain joint work experience; when there is a long-term strong relationship of the parties with each other; when it is necessary to integrate points of view and strengthen personal involvement.
The essence of the compromise style is that the parties try to resolve differences by making mutual concessions. In this sense, it resembles a style of cooperation, but is carried out on a more superficial level, since the parties are somewhat inferior to each other. This style is most effective when both parties want the same thing, but know that it is impossible at the same time. In using this style, the emphasis is not on a solution that would satisfy everyone, but on concessions from each side. The compromise style requires negotiation skills in order for each participant to achieve something, remembering that in the process of dividing interests, all parties cannot be completely satisfied.
The downside to style is that one side may increase their demands in order to appear generous later, giving in more or earlier. Moreover, a compromise is reached after all other solutions have been swept aside. So, the compromise style can be used in the following situations: when both sides have equally convincing arguments and have the same power; when the satisfaction of the interests of one of the parties is not of great importance to it; when acceptance is possible temporary solution; besides, the compromise allows you to get at least something.
The evasion style is usually implemented if the conflict does not affect the direct interests of the parties. This style is also used when one of the parties has more power or feels that it is wrong, or believes that there is no good reason to continue contact. It is also recommended to use it in cases where one of the parties has more power or feels that there is no serious reason for extending contacts. In addition, it is used when you have to deal with a conflicted person.
A conflicting party may use an evasive style if it: believes that the source of the disagreement is unimportant compared to other tasks; knows that he cannot resolve the issue in his favor; has no power; wants to buy time; when the conflict involves "difficult" people in terms of interpersonal communication.
It would be wrong to think that this style is an escape from a problem or an evasion of responsibility. This can be an adequate strategy, since during the time of leaving the situation can be resolved by itself, or a person will be able to deal with it when he has sufficient information, power, etc.
Adaptation style means that you act in concert with the other party, but do not try to defend your own interests in order to smooth out the atmosphere. Sometimes this is the only way to resolve the conflict, since by the time it arises, the needs of the other person may be more important than their own.
The adaptation style can be applied when the most important task is to restore calmness and stability; the subject of the disagreement is not important; it is better to maintain good relations with the other side than to defend your point of view; if there is not enough power or chances to win the conflict.
LECTURE 7. GENERAL ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION.
1. Ethics of business communication "top-down" and "bottom-up".
2. Ethics of business communication "horizontally".
Ethics, that is moral principles and the norms of the culture of business communication, must be observed in all forms: in the relationship between enterprises, within one enterprise, between the manager and subordinates, between people of the same status.
The general moral principle of human communication is contained in the categorical imperative of I. Kant: “Do so that the maxim of your will can always have the force of the principle of universal legislation. With regard to business communication, the basic ethical principle can be formulated as follows: business communication when deciding what values should be preferred in a given situation, act in such a way that the maxim of your will is compatible with the moral values of other parties involved in the communication, and allows coordination of the interests of the parties.
Thus, the basis of the ethics of business communication should be the coordination and harmonization of interests. But this communication, of course, must be carried out by ethical means and in the name of morally justified goals. Therefore, business communication must be constantly tested by moral reflection that justifies its motives. That said, making the ethically correct choice is not easy. Market relations provide freedom of choice, but also increase the number of options for solutions, give rise to moral dilemmas.
However, despite the difficulty of choosing a moral position, there are a number of provisions in communication, following which you can increase the effectiveness of business communication. For instance:
There is no absolute truth in morality, and there is no supreme judge among people;
You cannot judge others more severely than yourself;
In morality one should praise others, and make claims to oneself;
The moral attitude of those around us depends on us; in any judgment, start with yourself.
In business communication in relation to a subordinate to his boss, the general ethical rule of conduct is as follows: as Confucius said, “what you don’t wish for yourself, don’t do to others”. The success of business communication is largely determined by the norms that the leader applies in relation to subordinates. Norms and principles dictate which behavior is ethically acceptable and which is not. These norms concern, first of all, on the basis of which orders are given in the management process, in which official discipline is expressed. Without adherence to the ethics of business communication, discomfort is felt between the manager and the subordinate in the team. It is the attitude of the boss to his subordinates that primarily affects the moral and psychological climate in the group. It is at this level that, first of all, moral standards and patterns of behavior are formed. The forms of the order can be an order, a request, a request and the so-called "volunteer". The order must be used in emergency or in relation to unscrupulous workers.
A request is used if the situation is ordinary, and the relationship between the manager and the subordinate is based on trust and goodwill.
The question is best used in cases where the manager wants to provoke discussion or nudge the employee to take the initiative.
A "volunteer" is suitable for a situation where no one wants to do the job, but it needs to be done.
Using certain ethical norms, you can attract a leader to your side, make your ally, but you can also turn him against yourself. Try to help the leader in creating a moral atmosphere in the team, strengthening fair relations. Do not try to impose your point of view on the leader. Make your suggestions polite and tactful.
If an important, joyful or unpleasant event is imminent or has already happened in the team, it is necessary to inform the manager about this.
Do not speak categorically to your boss. Be loyal and reliable, but don't be sneaky.
Except in an emergency, do not seek help or advice directly from a senior executive.
If you have been given responsibility, raise the issue of your rights.
The basic principles of ethics in business communication between colleagues are as follows. Don't ask for any special treatment or privilege from another. Try to achieve a clear separation of rights and responsibilities in the common work. If you are at a loss how to behave in a given situation, put yourself in the shoes of your colleague.
Finding the right ethical tone is not easy when applied to peers - low and middle managers. They are often rivals for success and promotion. Here are some ethical principles business communication with colleagues.
Don't prejudice your coworkers and don't pass on rumors or gossip about them. Be friendly and show kindness to your coworkers.
Don't make promises you can't keep.
At work, it is not customary to talk about personal matters, especially about problems.
Don't ask for special treatment or privileges from colleagues
Distribute clearly the rights and responsibilities in the implementation of the common work.
Call colleagues by name and try to do it as often as possible.
Smile, be friendly, and use all means to show your kindness.
Don't exaggerate your value and business opportunities
Try to listen not to yourself, but to someone else.
Do not try to show yourself better, more interesting than you really are
Treat colleagues as individuals who should be respected in their own right, not as a means to achieving goals.
There are various means and ways to improve the level of morality in business communication. For example, the development of ethical standards for the enterprise, the creation of ethics commissions, conducting social and ethical audits, teaching ethical behavior through various seminars, conversations, training.
Ethical standards of business communication and conduct should describe common system rules of ethics to be adhered to. In the West, organizations and businesses usually communicate ethical standards to workers in the form of printed materials. Some firms set up ethics committees, others hire a business ethicist called an ethics advocate. Its role is to provide judgment on ethical issues, including business ethics.
Business Etiquette- the most important side of morality professional behavior business person, entrepreneur. Knowing him is essential professional quality that needs to be acquired and constantly improved
Business etiquette is an important aspect of the morality of a person's professional behavior. Knowing it is a necessary professional quality that needs to be constantly improved. The rules of etiquette, clothed in specific norms of behavior, indicate the unity of its two sides: ethical and aesthetic. The first side is the expression of moral norms, the second testifies to the beauty of forms of behavior.
Joint labor activity, including the activity of business communication, does not always proceed smoothly; mismatching interests, points of view lead to the emergence of complex situations, accompanied by specific ways of interaction, defined as conflicting. Conflicts have a pronounced impact on the efficiency of the organization, the social and personal well-being of its employees. Being a complex multi-level phenomenon, any conflict, nevertheless, is based on the intractable and entailing emergence of emotional experiences. contradiction.
Among objective reasons conflict includes organizational, economic or technological factors, manifested in the following:
♦ lack of time;
♦ lack of resources;
♦ lack of information;
♦ disruption of the functioning of production;
♦ violation of the role structure;
♦ violation of the separation of duties;
♦ lack of evaluation criteria;
♦ lack of discipline;
♦ uncertainty of production technology;
♦ uncertainty of technological links;
♦ uncertainty in the hierarchy of subordination.
Among the conflicts that are based on subjective reasons, can be attributed to the following:
♦ motivational - violation of satisfaction of needs, structure of values and norms;
♦ communication - distortion of information channels and lack of feedback;
♦ overbearing - obstacles to the realization of personal goals in the structure of the organization.
The number of conflicts caused by the behavior of the leader may include:
♦ violation of official ethics;
♦ inequity in incentives.
As the main ways to resolve conflicts can be named: ♦ changing circumstances to change goals;
♦ changing the characteristics of the object of the conflict;
♦ reorientation of one of the parties;
♦ submission to one of the parties.
Thus, conflict is a clash of multidirectional goals, interests and positions subjects of interaction, as well as opposition of opinions, views communication partners, fixed by them in a rigid manner.
Determining the possibility of the emergence and development of a conflict - a conflict situation includes:
♦ opposite positions;
♦ conflicting goals;
♦ different means of achieving them; f mismatch of interests;
♦ the difference between drives and desires.
Conflict for its development and transformation from potential v actual should get a push in the form incident, in which one of the parties initiates actions directed against the other party.
Conflicts are highlighted depending on the situation:
♦ intergroup;
♦ inter-organizational;
♦ class;
♦ interstate;
♦ international.
Conflicts are distinguished depending on the subject:
♦ intrapersonal;
♦ interpersonal.
Constructive conflict positively affects the effectiveness of socio-psychological processes and serves the self-improvement of the individual. Capable of performing functions:.
♦ integration;
♦ ♦ rallying the members of the group;
♦ stimulation of finding a way out of a problem situation. Various strategy behavior in constructive conflict with basic characteristics corporatism and assertiveness:
♦ rivalry - accompanied by open struggle solely for their own interests;
♦ cooperation - aimed at finding a mutually beneficial solution to the problem;
♦ compromise settlement - carried out through mutual concessions;
♦ avoidance - consisting in the desire to get out of the situation at any cost;
♦ adaptation - smoothing out contradictions in the readiness to sacrifice their interests.
The main stages conflicts:
1) strengthening the participants by introducing new forces and gaining - the experience of confrontation;
2) an increase in the number of conflict situations and the aggravation of the primary problem;
3) increasing the activity of participants, involving new members, exacerbating the situation;
4) escalation of tension, increased emotional instability of the participants;
5) changing the attitude of the participants to the conflict situation and the problem as a whole.
Imagine here block diagram settlement and completion of the conflict, reflecting the types and sequence of actions leading to this:
Note, however, that the best way conflict resolution is its prevention, the ability to avoid or weaken the effect of factors contributing to the emergence and escalation of the conflict - conflict genes... In order to master these skills, let's first get acquainted with the features conflictogenic behavior. F. La Rochefoucauld mentioned one of the reasons and features of conflict behavior, saying: “People stubbornly disagree with the most sound judgments, not because of a lack of discernment, but because of an excess of pride: they see that the first ranks in the right cause have been dismantled, and the last I don’t want to borrow ”.
Its main characteristics are as follows:
♦ expression of open distrust to a partner with the help of verbal and non-verbal means;
♦ interrupting the partner, not giving him the opportunity to speak out;
belittling the importance of a partner;
demonstration and emphasis of differences between partners; unwillingness to admit their mistakes and omissions; underestimation of the partner's contribution to the common cause; imposing your point of view without proper argumentation; insincerity in statements or contradiction between verbal and non-verbal messages;
♦ change in the pace of communication in the direction of its sharp acceleration or curtailment, etc.
Such actions are extremely negatively perceived by the partner and lead to retaliatory measures, provoking the development of a conflict. Let us further try to single out two main categories of conflict-generating factors related to the communicative and interactive components of business communication.
So, the first group is - Conflict statements , the second group is Conflict actions .
There are specific Conflict statements, the list of which we will give below:
expressing no confidence - "You're lying to me";
making an insult - "Stupid, lazy, insignificant";
making a threat "I will remember this for you";
uttering ridicule - "Mumbler, bespectacled, short man";
comparison statement - "Like a parrot, like a turtle";
expressing dislike - “I don’t want to talk to you, you are disgusting to me”;
statement of obligation - “You must, you must”; ...
accusation - "You ruined everything, you yourself are to blame."
The communication partner, perceiving statements-conflicts, mobilizes defense mechanisms and begins to use all the available arsenal of means of defense, justification and attack - the conflict develops. This concerns the forms, what becomes the cause of the conflict, in addition to the real collision of interests of partners?
Conflict-related behavior can be caused, for example, by such personal characteristics of business communication partners as aggressiveness, which sometimes takes the form of purposeful destructive behavior - aggression. Aggression is contrary to the norms and rules of coexistence, causes negative experiences, a state of tension, fear, depression, combining different forms of behavior - from evil jokes, gossip and hostile fantasies to openly destructive actions.
She appears in the conflict as:
♦ a method of psychological relaxation, substitution of the satisfaction of a blocked need and switching activities;
♦ a form of self-realization and self-affirmation. Aggression in conflict can manifest itself in different forms;
♦ physical, expressed in the use of physical strength (extreme manifestation);
♦ verbal, expressed in form (quarrel, shouting, screeching) and content (threat, curse, swearing);
♦ direct, directly directed against object a (open conflict);
♦ indirect, directed in a roundabout way (gossip, jokes, mockery, rumors, accusations, offensive remarks, critical reviews);
♦ hostile, expressed in actions aimed at causing harm to an object (physical or moral);
♦ instrumental, which is a means of achieving a goal (career or financial) or related to self-affirmation.
There are specific Conflict actions , the list of which we will give below
1 Striving for excellence - "What do you understand in this, who you are, it is not for you to judge this":
♦ demonstration of arrogance - “I am the most competent of all those present”;
♦ self-confidence - “With my experience it costs me nothing”;
♦ imposing advice - “I am sure that this is the only way to do it”;
♦ interrupting a partner - “I already understood everything, now listen to me”;
♦ violation of ethics - “I am the leader here, so be quiet”;
♦ reminder of defeat - “Remember how you blundered then”;
♦ condescension to a partner - "You are an adult, and you behave so undignifiedly";
♦ humiliation of a partner - "He is already a middle-aged man, but made a mistake like a boy."
2. The manifestation of selfishness - “I don’t care about your problems, I don’t care, these are your difficulties.”
3. Manifestation of aggressiveness - "I will show you, I will arrange for you, you will dance with me."
To characterize one of the reasons contributing to the escalation of the conflict, Let us present here one of the well-known typologies of the character of E. Fromm, which accurately describes three types of attitudes towards life, society and moral values, which can be easily compared with the tendency to conflicts and the manner of behavior in them:
♦ “masochist-sadist” - inclined to aggression directed at an object who considers the cause of his failures, striving to make others dependent on himself;
♦ “destroyer” - prone to pronounced aggressiveness and the desire to intimidate, sometimes to increased anxiety;
♦ "conformal automaton" - inclined to yield to demands, to obey circumstances, to assimilate the way of behavior of the majority.
Another, very significant reason for the contradiction underlying the conflict, can be the factor presented by F. Nietzsche: "We often contradict any opinion, although we, in fact, are only unsympathetic to the tone in which it is presented."
What are the methods of removing the mental tension accompanying the conflict in order to develop rational ways to resolve the conflict situation?
♦ rethinking the situation by analyzing and rationally changing the attitude towards it - "Whatever is done, for the better, make lemonade out of the lemon you got, every swagger has a little ham";
♦ experiencing psychoemotional or psychosomatic shock - "Hit the boss's dummy, give yourself some physical activity";
♦ response by external expression of experiences: verbal, symbolic, figurative - “Speak out, shout out, burn the scarecrow, draw your anger, describe your indignation”;
♦ responding by changing the social context - “Use invectives, change the mask, step out of the role”;
♦ strengthening the social context through empathy - "Domesticate disagreement, repent, evoke sympathy";
♦ optimization by relaxation, visualization, fixation on breath, identification with a symbolic object - "Imagine yourself lying on the beach in the summer, imagine that you are a seagull hovering over the sea";
♦ optimization through inclusion in activities that previously brought satisfaction using the associative relationship between action and state - "Play tennis, talk to a friend, take a walk with the dog."
All of the above options for constructive influence require communication partners of different levels of activity and mobilization of mental resources.
In general, summing up the issues of the conflict, it should be said that there is a classification based on differentiation psychological causes of conflicts, according to which they are all divided into three main groups, and solutions differ depending on their belonging to one or another.
So, there are three groups:
♦ disputes with underlying different interests are resolved using power on the basis of legal and social norms;
♦ conflicts with underlying collisions of basic social needs are resolved using problem-oriented methods;
♦ management problems, with underlying different ideas about the means of achieving goals, are resolved using the means and methods of verbal psychological influence: conducting a discussion, evidence, argumentation, improving communication.
So, the main form of conflict resolution at all levels is the process of conducting targeted conversations or negotiations directly between the parties to the conflict, or with the participation of mediators. In conclusion, here are the main ones:
1. M. Follet:
♦ dominance of one side over the other;
♦ a compromise with concessions from both sides;
♦ integration with the satisfaction of the desires of both.
2.R. Blake, D. Moughton:
♦ evasion;
♦ smoothing;
♦ coercion;
♦ compromise;
♦ problem solving.
In this case, the optimal according to M. Deutsch, for the resolution of the conflict is a demonstration of firmness and friendliness, suboptimal - aggressiveness and excessive compliance.
So, let's illustrate now basic strategies of behavior in conflict : rivalry-competition and cooperation-cooperation. Within the framework of rivalry, the following types of influence are used - suggestion, manipulation, coercion, compulsion, petition, disposition, devaluation, assimilation. They all inherently belong to manipulative, or imperative.
Within the framework of cooperation , or cooperation, the following types of influence are used- persuasion, disposition, admonition, petition, which in this context can be attributed to the developmental strategy of influence.
Rivalry , where the following popular manipulative conflict resolution techniques are.
1. Technique for using positive interaction with an opponent in order to strengthen their own position, and not to search for common solutions:
♦ familiarizing the opponent with his own system of values in order to mitigate tensions against the background of joint activities - blood community strategy;
♦ using the opponent's complexities and involving him in relationships to reduce the likelihood of playing on the opponent's side - vulture strategy.
2. Distraction Technique to weaken the opponent's position:
♦ imitation of activity or leakage of information about the existing shortcomings of the opponent and the refutation of this information when the opponent joins in its dissemination - promiscuity strategy;
♦ dissemination of false information that discredits the opponent, defamation - strategy "no smoke without fire";
♦ waiting for the moment of the most unfavorable development of events for the opponent to enter into a confrontation - "waiting for an error" strategy.
3. The technique of using the victim to strengthen their own positions:
♦ sacrifice of the least valuable interests - strategy "small for the sake of big";
♦ change of partners suffering defeat - strategy "rat from a sinking ship";
♦ sacrifice to induce more meaningful reciprocal sacrifices - quid pro quo strategy.
4. Technique of using the opponent's misses to strengthen their positions:
♦ drawing attention to the opponent's mistakes in a field that is not related to the topic - dossier strategy;
♦ exaggeration of the value of the opponent's insignificant blunders - the "fly elephant" strategy;
5. Mood Sewerage Technique amid impending reckoning:
♦ shifting attention to a subject indirectly related to failure - false trail strategy;
♦ representation of him as the only culprit - focus shift strategy;
♦ the formation of his negative image - demonization strategy;
♦ provoking public actions - “incitement to hatred” strategy.
As we have seen, the strategy of coercion in solving problems of counteraction in a conflict is combined with manipulative technologies of influence. The consequences of this are the following:
♦ increasing the number of those involved in the conflict;
♦ expansion of the conflict zone;
♦ actualization of latent contradictions.
All this, naturally, complicates the transition to rational methods of conflict resolution and makes it impossible to use the strategy of cooperation, which we will consider below.
so , let us turn to the analysis of the strategy cooperation, possible, subject to the following conditions:
♦ mutual desire to find a solution;
♦ negotiating.
The most productive ways of interaction in conflict are the following:
1) objectification - including step-by-step joint analysis carried out by opponents;
2) mediation - including the awareness of opponents of their subjective position and affect associated with the presence of an insurmountable contradiction;
3) participation - involving the involvement of the opponent in joint decision-making.
Thus, conflict management requires the choice of the correct strategy and, within its framework, adequate methods of psychological influence with the aim of its optimal resolution in the shortest possible time.
Practical advice.So, based on the above, we will further present our specific recommendations of an approximate sequence of actions to prevent and resolve conflicts in business communication.
1. Prevention of conflict:
♦ listening carefully to a partner - "I am all attention, I am ready to listen to your information";
♦ Feedback with a partner - “I would like to know what is your opinion, what do you think about this”;
♦ discussion of interpersonal relationships with a partner - “Let's discuss our relationship and their prospects”;
♦ demonstration of respect for a partner - “I acknowledge your merits and achievements, they are undeniable”;
♦ showing tolerance for a partner - “I understand your feelings, they are natural and understandable”;
♦ demonstration of self-control to a partner - “It’s hard to piss me off, I’m sure that I’m right”;
♦ distraction of attention in case of increased emotionality of the partner - “I think we should discuss another aspect”;
♦ reducing social distance with a partner - “We are doing a common cause, it unites us”;
♦ informing your partner about your feelings - "I hate to hear this, I am vexed, I am upset";
♦ checking the reality of the partner's facts - “Let's turn to the documents, invite experts”;
♦ seeking advice from a partner - “Could you suggest your own version, how do you see the solutions”;
♦ a promise of help to a partner - "You can count on my assistance in this matter, I am ready to help you."
2. Conflict resolution:
♦ clear formulation of requirements and their explanation;
♦ specification of the rights and obligations of opponents;
♦ clarification of the rules for performing work;
♦ use of coordinating mechanisms;
♦ observance of the principle of one-man management;
♦ appeal to an arbitrator;
♦ establishment of common goals, formation of common values;
♦ informing everyone about the policy, strategy and prospects joint activities;
♦ informing about the state of affairs with the partner;
♦ formulation of the goals of joint activities at the level of the goals of society;
♦ development of a system of incentives;
♦ Establishment of evaluation criteria that exclude a conflict of interests of partners.
Specific steps to resolve the conflict, offered by us on the basis of well-known technologies :
1) definition of the main problem;
2) determination of the secondary causes of the conflict;
3) search possible ways conflict resolution;
4) a joint decision to get out of the conflict;
5) selection, if necessary, of a mediator for settlement;
6) implementation of the jointly planned method of conflict resolution;
7) assessment of the effectiveness of efforts taken to resolve the conflict.
Wherein conditions, necessary for the successful performance of mediation functions in conflict resolution are the following:
1) the consideration by the conflicting parties of the mediator as a "guarantor of the fairness of the decision;
2) neutral position of the mediator as not involved in the conflict;
3) consent of the conflicting parties with the presence of an intermediary;
5) presentation of the views of each of the parties to the mediator separately;
6) defining the mediator's task as collecting information and clarifying the problem, and not making a decision;
7) availability of guarantees of further security if the intermediary is subordinate to one of the parties;
8) the desire of the mediator to support each of the parties in expressing their respective views and feelings;
9) facilitation by the mediator of the integration of the points of view expressed by the parties on the problem under discussion;
10) rendering assistance by the mediator to the conflicting parties in deciding on possible concessions.
So, constructive conflict resolution depends on the action of the following factors:
♦ the adequacy of the perception of the conflict by the parties, taking into account the known effects and possible mistakes perception;
♦ openness and efficiency of communication between the parties, using well-known techniques of listening, argumentation, neutralization of comments, etc .;
♦ creating an atmosphere of mutual trust and cooperation using well-known techniques for relieving psycho-emotional stress;
♦ correct determination by the parties of the essence of the conflict, taking into account the above;
♦ correct use by the parties of well-known techniques of psychological influence and methods of confrontation.
In order for the contradictions, inevitable in the course of any communication and due to the objective dissimilarity of positions, interests, attitudes, motives, needs, ideas, as well as personal characteristics partners, did not lead to the emergence and escalation of the conflict, you should properly build business communication in various formats.
Business communication plays an important role in the formation and development of any organization. After all, employees have to communicate with partners, colleagues and bosses. How this develops can affect the success of transactions, career growth and other important things. Conflict situations that can negatively affect relationships both within the team and with partners should be avoided. Therefore, a competent leader should know what conflicts in business communication are and what ways exist to overcome them. Our article will tell you about these issues in detail.
Features of conflicts
The very concept of conflict is known to many sciences, and it is interpreted in different ways. But conflict is always understood as a clash of interests, their confrontation. A characteristic feature of this situation is the fact that neither side is willing to make concessions. A business conflict is specific to what always happens in a professional environment. In this regard, several varieties of it are distinguished:
- Pointless. When the conflict is based on something abstract and serves only for the emotional release of people. This type is the least common in the business environment.
- Realistic. Its goal is to achieve a specific result.
- Destructive. It is also called destructive, and it is the most dangerous.
- Constructive. It is based on facts and is constructive.
What are the reasons
Any conflicts in business communications arise for specific reasons. The most known and studied reasons for constructive conflicts:
- Different vision of the parties to the final result of work.
- Differences in intellectual level and education.
- Lack of money or staff.
- Difficult working conditions.
- Employees of the company have different rights.
- Lack of ability to interact with each other.
Destructive conflicts always arise for reasons of a subjective nature. This may be an illiterate management policy, incompatibility of the characters of employees or intrigues with the aim of moving up the career ladder.
Destructive conflicts always arise for reasons of a subjective nature.
Solutions
The ways of solving any conflict situation are different. But they are always phased:
- At the first stage, the conflicting parties must understand what led to the conflict, what is its cause and how the opponent views the problem. It helps to understand the essence and to understand the other side, and this is already half the battle.
- Actions are determined that both partners consider unacceptable to resolve the conflict. Next, a common goal is sought, because of which the dispute needs to be resolved as quickly as possible.
- At the last stage, we jointly find options for action that will lead to the end of the conflict.
It is important to resolve such situations as quickly as possible so that they do not drag on and become aggravated. After all, problems can accumulate with the speed of a snowball!
Preventive actions
It is easier and wiser to prevent and prevent every business conflict than to solve it later. The following guidelines can be a great help for this:
- Maintain a fair firm policy aimed at equal distribution of benefits for all employees.
- Creation of a comfortable working environment.
- Prescribing measures to resolve controversial situations.
- Avoiding rush jobs.
- Avoiding the influence of personal problems on the labor activity of the entire team.
When faced with conflict situation a person can go two different ways: try to avoid it or accept it for a constructive solution. The first path leads either to a painless solution to the problem, or, conversely, to delay. The second path is active and therefore often turns out to be productive. He helps to develop his communication skills, as well as gain experience in difficult business communication.
When faced with a conflict situation, a person can go two different ways: try to avoid it, or take it for a constructive solution.
Finally
It is simply impossible to completely prevent business conflicts, because they are an integral part of the workflow. The most important thing for a leader is to minimize them and learn how to get out of the situation correctly, acquire useful skills. Many negative consequences of such situations can be avoided if each employee of the company takes it as a rule to resolve all arising disagreements in the most operational mode.
