The economic effect from the implementation of automation tools can only be indirect, since the implemented automation tools are not a direct source of income, but are either an auxiliary means of organizing profit, or help to minimize costs.
You can evaluate the economic effect of using the program in two ways: simple and complex(more time consuming method, but more accurate). The simple method is a slight simplification of the complex method, taking into account various "caveats". For example, if material costs do not change after the implementation of the program, then they can be excluded from the calculation, thereby simplifying it. A complete assessment based on a complex algorithm is usually carried out by qualified specialists based on the results of a survey of the business processes of an enterprise. But if you need to quickly and approximately evaluate the effectiveness of the implementation of the automation tool, you can substitute the estimated cost values in the formulas presented. Of course, when using cost estimates, and not their actual values, the economic effect will not be calculated accurately, but nevertheless will allow you to assess the profitability and need for automation.
The main economic effect from the introduction of automation means is to improve the economic and economic indicators the work of the enterprise, primarily by increasing the efficiency of management and reducing labor costs for the implementation of the management process, that is, reducing management costs. For most enterprises, the economic effect appears in the form of savings in labor and financial resources obtained from:
- reducing the complexity of calculations;
- reducing labor costs for searching and preparing documents;
- savings on consumables(paper, floppy disks, cartridges);
- reduction of employees of the enterprise.
Reducing the same labor costs at the enterprise is possible due to the automation of work with documents, reducing the cost of finding information.
The criterion for the effectiveness of the creation and implementation of new automation tools is the expected economic effect ... It is determined by the formula:
E = E r -E n * K p,
where E p - annual savings;
E n - standard coefficient (E n = 0.15);
K p - capital costs for design and implementation, including the initial cost of the program.
The annual savings in ER are made up of savings in operating costs and savings due to increased user productivity. Thus, we get:
E p = (P1-P2) + ΔP p, (1)
where Р1 and Р2 are, respectively, operating costs before and after the implementation of the developed program;
ΔР p - savings from increasing the productivity of additional users.
CALCULATION OF CAPITAL COSTS FOR DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION
If we evaluate the economic effect taking into account all the details, then the capital costs for design and implementation are calculated taking into account the duration of work at this stage. So, let's take a closer look at the calculation of capital costs for the design and implementation of an automation system.
Design refers to the totality of work that must be performed in order to design a system, part of a system, or a given task. Implementation is understood as a set of works on putting the system into commercial operation with possible modifications.
To calculate the costs at the design stage, it is necessary to determine the duration of each work, starting with the preparation of the technical task and ending with the paperwork.
The duration of work is determined either according to the standards (in this case, special tables are used), or they are calculated on the basis of expert assessments using the formula:
T 0 = (3 * T min + 2 * T max) / 5 (2)
where T 0 is the expected duration of work;
T min and T max ~, respectively, the smallest and longest, in the opinion of the expert, the duration of work.
The calculation data for the expected duration of work are given in the table.
Table 1
Table of the duration of work at the design stage (example)
|
Name of works |
Duration of work, days |
||
|
maximum |
|||
|
Development of technical specifications |
|||
|
Analysis of technical specifications |
|||
|
Literature study |
|||
|
Working in the library with sources |
|||
|
Getting to know the main steps thesis |
|||
|
Registration of TK |
|||
|
Algorithm development |
|||
Improvements to the program |
|||
|
Debugging a program |
|||
|
Execution of an explanatory note |
|||
|
Making posters |
|||
Capital costs at the design stage K to are calculated by the formula:
K k = C + Z p + M p + H (3),
where C is the initial cost of the software product;
Z p - wage specialists at all stages of design and implementation ;
M p - the cost of using a computer at the design and implementation stage;
H - overhead costs at the design and implementation stage.
One of the main types of costs at the design stage is the salary of a specialist, which is calculated by the formula:
Z p = Z p * T p * (l + A s / 100) * (l + A p / 100) (4)
where Z p is the developer's salary at the design stage;
Z d - developer's daily salary at the design stage;
And c - the percentage of deductions for social insurance;
And n is the percentage of premiums.
In general, the cost of machine time consists of the cost of processor time (when working with an object or absolute module) and the cost of display time. The formula for calculations is:
M = t d * C d + t p * C p (5)
where C p and C d - respectively, the cost of one hour of processor and display time;
t d and t p - respectively, the processor and display time required to solve the problem (hours).
Since the program was developed on modern high-speed computers, there is no need for additional processor time, i.e. taken as C n = 0 and t n = 0.
When calculating M p, one should take into account the time spent on preparing source codes of programs, their debugging and solving test cases.
Overhead costs according to formula (2) are 80-120% of the salaries of the personnel involved in the operation of the program.
If the design and implementation of the automation tool is completely carried out by a third-party organization, then a simplified calculation scheme can be used, i.e. as capital costs for design and implementation, accept the amounts paid to the third party, including the initial cost of the automation tool.
Operating costs include:
- content information costs;
- maintenance of personnel for the maintenance of the complex of technical means;
- operating costs of the program;
- building maintenance costs;
- other expenses.
STAFF COSTS
Expenses for different types working is determined by the formula:
Z = n i z i * (1+ A c / 100) * (1 + A p / 100)
where n i - the number of personnel of the 1st type associated with the performance of work;
A c - percentage of social security contributions
A p - the average percentage of premiums for the year
COSTS FOR FUNCTIONING OF THE PROGRAM
The operating costs of the program consist of the costs of machine time and the costs of operating various accessories (paper, ink for the printer, etc.).
From formula (5), we will calculate the costs for the operation of the program:
M = t d * C d + t p * C p
At the same time, it is possible to estimate similar costs before the implementation of the program and compare the values obtained. When introducing the program, the time for working with the same task is reduced, due to which there is already a saving.
OVERHEAD COSTS
The cost of maintenance supplies is determined by a simple calculation of the cost of purchasing them at wholesale (or free) prices.
OTHER EXPENSES
Other costs range from 1 to 3% of the total operating costs.
- before the implementation of the program
P pr1 = (Z + M 1 + H) * 0.03
- after the implementation of the program
P pr2 = (Z + M 2 + H) * 0.03
Thus, the operating costs are:
- before the implementation of the program
P 1 = Z + M 1 + H + P pr1
- after the implementation of the program
P 2 = Z + M 2 + H + P pr2
If the user, while saving the i-type using the program, saves T i, hours, then the increase in labor productivity P i (in%) is determined by the formula:
where F j is the time that was planned by the user to perform j-type work before the implementation of the program (hours).
table 2
User work table (example)
|
Type of work |
Before auto-matisation, min Fj |
Saving time, min. |
Increase in labor productivity Р i (in%) |
|
|
Entering information |
||||
|
Calculations |
||||
|
Preparation and printing of reports |
||||
|
Data analysis and sampling |
The savings associated with increasing the productivity of the user P will be determined by the formula:
where Z p is the average annual salary of the user.
EXAMPLE
For a better understanding of the material, consider, as an example, a small typical Russian organization engaged in the provision of services, in which the accounting department with one workplace is automated. The software tool of "1C firm" - "1C: Accounting Enterprise 2.0" was chosen as an automation tool. This assumes that the software is being implemented by a third party. The cost of "1C: Enterprise Accounting 2.0" is 10,800 rubles.
The cost of the services of a third-party organization for its implementation is 10,000 rubles.
As a result, the capital costs for implementation will be:
K = 10800 + 10000 = 20800 rub.
Let's calculate the costs of maintaining personnel, based on the condition that the employee's salary is 50,000 rubles.
Z = 1 * 50,000 * (1 + 34% / 100) = RUB 67,000.
In our example, for simplicity, overhead and other costs before and after the implementation of the program will be considered unchanged, i.e. the introduction of the program did not lead to the saving of ink in printer cartridges, waste of paper, etc. Thus, the annual savings will equal the savings associated with increased user productivity.
Let's calculate the savings due to the increase in employee productivity. In our example, accounting was conducted on a computer, but manually using various programs that allow storing data in tables. For example, MS Excel. As the initial data, we will use the data shown in Table 2.
Savings associated with increased user productivity:
P = 67000 * 9 = RUB 603,000.
As a result, we get the following expected economic efficiency:
E = 603000 - 20800 * 0,15 = RUB 599,880
What do these numbers say? Even with an approximate calculation, the economic efficiency from the implementation of the software turned out to be significant. It turned out this way by increasing the employee's productivity.
Accordingly, having spent only 20,800 rubles, we get an annual savings of 599,880 rubles!
CONCLUSION
According to the calculation results economic efficiency design and implementation of automation tools is immediately possible, which is beneficial. Although the benefits are indirect, they are usually noticeable in the medium and long term. The introduction of automation tools can lead to adjustments in the business process itself, since tasks are completed faster. Employees can process large amounts of information for their own work time, which can be used either to reduce personnel costs or for the rapid development of the business while the number of employees engaged in information processing remains unchanged.
As practice shows, the automation of business processes, in particular such as calculating the cost of production, preparing regulated reporting on the results of activities, accounting for settlements with counterparties, the formation and accounting of printed documents, has great potential for development and material benefits over time.
In the process of calculating economic efficiency, one property of automation must be taken into account. It consists in the following: the more money and time spent on automation, the higher the economic effect of implementation. This is explained quite simply: if you approach the choice of a software product with a high quality, work out all business processes at the design and implementation stage, describe and debug everything, then much less money will be spent later on operating the program.
It is important to note that if one software tool various departments and employees are automated, then the costs of organizing document flow between them are reduced. Both time and material costs are reduced.
When calculating the effectiveness of use advertising media it is very difficult to determine how much the gross income of the company has grown precisely because of advertising. There is no guarantee that the company's revenue would not increase if the company did not advertise itself or its product. Despite this, the cost-effectiveness of advertising is still considered.
Two dimensions are used to measure how effectively a business is using its workers. The first is development. The second indicator is labor intensity. Production is calculated as the ratio of the quantity of goods produced to the cost of personnel:
Formula of economic efficiency
The base of economic efficiency is the ratio of the effect and the costs to achieve it. But in addition to the absolute magnitude of the effect, it is important to determine its relative magnitude, which can be calculated by the ratio of the overall result (effect) to the resource costs that led to its receipt.
In practice, the cost-effectiveness formula is difficult to apply, since the numerator and denominator for its calculation are often not quantifiable. This is due to the diversity economic activity, which is easier to express in qualitative terms than quantitative ones.
What is the general formula for calculating efficiency
- Labor productivity is an indicator expressing the ratio of the mass of production to the mass of living labor.
Although this approach to the definition of labor productivity is very universal, there are differences in the calculations and indicators of labor productivity at the macro- and microeconomic levels.
If productivity is calculated on the scale of the national economy, then the annual gross domestic product or national income is usually taken as a result of labor and is divided by the number of workers employed in the national economy (the average annual number of workers), then at the level of an enterprise, a firm, labor productivity is determined by dividing the gross income (proceeds) from the sale of the annual or monthly volume of products produced by the average number of employees employed at the enterprise. The productivity of living labor accumulates the effect of the interaction of all factors of production. Therefore, labor productivity is an integral indicator of production efficiency. - Labor intensity of production - the inverse indicator of labor productivity, determined by the ratio of the cost of working time to the output. Reducing labor intensity is the most important indicator of increasing labor productivity.
- The capital-labor ratio is an indicator characterizing the level of labor equipment. It is measured by the ratio of the balance sheet (average annual) value of fixed assets (in comparable prices) to the cost of living labor (average annual number of employees).
Effect is an absolute value that indicates the achieved result of a process. The economic effect is the result human labor creating material wealth. Of course, the result itself is very important, but it is equally important to know what costs it will be achieved at. Therefore, the commensurability of the effect and the cost of achieving it is the basis of economic efficiency. In addition to the absolute magnitude of the effect, it is also necessary to know its relative magnitude, calculated by dividing the overall result (effect) by the resource costs that caused it to be obtained.
How to calculate cost effectiveness
Despite the fact that competitiveness cannot shed light on the complex indicators of the economic efficiency of the state, its advantage is a complete and high-quality assessment of one of the sides of production. The ability to outperform competitors expresses a country's potential in industries such as:
The calculation of economic efficiency is made after determining the final result and relative costs. Let's try to do it ourselves with the following example. Let's say that the end result of the company's activity is the monthly release of a certain product in the amount of 3 million rubles. We will consider the direct costs of production:
Definition of economic effect shows how advantageous it is to carry out this or that action by the enterprise. The indicators are measured as a result of the difference between the profits from the activities of the enterprise and the costs spent on its implementation. Economic discovery effect important in the implementation of the investment plan.
The introduction of something new or the metamorphosis of special technology in production is carried out in order to achieve a certain result. The effectiveness of activities can be measured with the help of special indicators. Among them, the economic efficiency .
How to calculate the effectiveness of a marketing campaign
For the sake of attracting new guests, it is possible for a while to "give up" the average check and cost. Yes, the check can go down, and the cost can go up. But if you are sure that as a result of the promotion new guests will indeed come to the restaurant, then this is a normal and even healthy situation.
Strive to increase average check now it is unnecessary and even dangerous. Expensive offers and additional sales during a crisis will only scare you away. 90% of your efforts should be focused on retaining an old guest and acquiring new customers to increase the number of transactions. In the arsenal of a competent restaurateur, now there should be mainly “attracting” and “returnable” promotions.
KPI calculation in Excel examples and formulas
- The goal is to provide a sales plan for the product in the amount of RUB 500,000 per month. Key indicator- sales plan. Measurement System: Actual Sales Amount / Planned Sales Amount.
- The goal is to increase the amount of shipment in the period by 20%. The key indicator is the average shipment amount. Measurement System: Actual Average Shipment / Planned Average Shipment.
- The goal is to increase the number of clients by 15% in a certain region. The key indicator is the number of customers in the enterprise database. Measurement system: actual number of clients / planned number of clients.
The stimulating factor in the KPI motivation system is monetary reward. It can be received by the employee who completed the task assigned to him. The amount of the bonus / bonus depends on the result of a particular employee in reporting period... The amount of remuneration can be fixed or expressed as a percentage of the salary.
The formula for calculating the profitability of the enterprise
V general view profitability shows how many rubles (kopecks) of profit one ruble invested in assets or resources will bring. For profitability of sales, the formula reads as follows: how many kopecks of profit are contained in one ruble of revenue. Measured as a percentage, this indicator reflects the effectiveness of activities.
The denominator contains the indicator whose profitability needs to be calculated. The indicator is always in value terms. For example, find the return on sales (ROTR), that is, the denominator should be an indicator of sales in value terms - this is revenue (TR - totalrevenue). Revenue is found as the product of price (P - price) and sales volume (Q - quantity). TR = P * Q.
Return on sales
Some entrepreneurs are misled into thinking that ROI is a measure of profitability in relation to the money invested. It is not right. The coefficient of profitability of sales allows you to determine what amount of money in the volume of sales of products is the profit of the enterprise minus tax and related payments.
This indicator of profitability shows the profitability solely from the sales process itself. That is how much the cost of the product pays for the costs of the production process of the product / service (purchase of the necessary components, the use of energy and human resources etc.).
Analysis of sales performance
From a practical point of view, the most important is the comparative analysis of performance indicators for individual periods. This is a simple but effective tool for studying internal development trends of a company, which arouses interest not only among the management and current owners of the company, but also among potential investors and creditors.
- The basic sequence of indices demonstrates the dynamics of the calculated indicator relative to a fixed (basic) period, most often set at the beginning of a year or month.
- With a chain sequence, the base value is taken from the indicator of the previous period relative to the calculated one.
Uncontrolled generosity in the provision of discounts to customers entails a lack of profit, and excessive caution - especially on the eve of the upcoming holidays - threatens to result in the loss of customers. How do I find and calculate a cost-effective discount amount?
Principles of discounts application
Before proceeding to a direct description of the types of discounts and to their economic assessment, one should dwell on the principles of their application, the implementation of which should ensure the effectiveness of the entire system of discounts.
First, the use of the system of discounts should lead to a positive economic effect. That is, discounts should not be perceived as an inevitable evil that the company has to put up with. On the contrary, they should serve, at least, to maintain the level of profitability, and better - to increase it.
Secondly, the discount provided should arouse real interest in the buyer and the desire to fulfill the agreed conditions.
Thirdly, the system of discounts should be simple and understandable for clients and employees of the company. The presence of a large number of different types of discounts in one system at the same time can create confusion and misunderstanding among the buyer and significantly complicate the work of the sales department.
Main types of discounts
1. Progressive discounts for large purchase volumes
This is the most common type of discount. The company sets their progressive scale depending on the volume of the consignment or the volume of purchases for a certain period. However, in most cases, such systems are designed intuitively and very often are not effective enough.
To calculate the scale of discounts, the principle of not reducing the level of profit can be used - the profit at a discount price and a new volume of sales should be no less than at the initial values of the price and level of sales.
Taking this principle into account, you can derive a formula for calculating discounts,
where current margin is revenue minus variable costs for a manufacturing facility or purchase cost for trading companies. If trading company large value of own variable costs, then they should also be added to the purchase cost;
the desired margin increase is an indicator of the desired margin increase in relation to the current level.
As you can see from the formula, aggregated data (margin and markup percentage) for the product category are used to calculate the discount scale. Moreover, the product category itself may contain a large number of product items with different prices, units of measure and sales volumes.
The use of the initial data on the product category makes the formula easy to apply in practice, since the discount scale has to be developed entirely for product categories, and not for individual items.
There are two possible ways to use the formula:
1) if a client asks for an additional discount, then the company must decide what counter conditions to offer in order to at least maintain the level of profit;
2) development of a general scale of discounts for all customers in a certain product category.
Example 1
The client asks for an additional discount
Let's say that a client monthly purchases a certain category of goods in the amount of 40,000 rubles, taking into account the 2% discount provided to the client. That is, according to the price list, such a batch costs 40,816 rubles (40,000 rubles / (1 - 2% / 100%)). The average trade margin for this product category is 25%. Thus, the purchase price of the consignment under consideration is 32,653 rubles (40,816 rubles / (1 + 25% / 100%)), and the current margin is 7347 rubles (40,000 - 32,653).
So the client is asking for a big discount. For example, 4% or 7%. What counter terms should the company offer in order to maintain profit levels? For example, for a discount level of 7% or more, the company has set the desired margin increase at RUB 1,000 compared to the previous level of RUB 7347. Let's calculate the required sales volume in monetary terms for each discount level using the above formula (see Table 1).
Table 1. Calculation of the required sales volume
|
Indicator |
Discount amount |
||||
|
10% |
|||||
|
Desired increase in margin |
1000 |
1000 |
|||
|
36 735 |
40 000 |
44 082 |
59 713 |
75 122 |
|
|
Required increase in sales volume in relation to current sales |
8,20% |
0,00% |
10,20% |
49,30% |
87,80% |
|
Price list |
36 735 |
40 816 |
45 918 |
64 207 |
83 469 |
|
Purchase cost |
29 388 |
32 653 |
36 735 |
51 366 |
66 776 |
|
Margin |
7347 |
7347 |
7347 |
8347 |
8347 |
Example 2
Development of a general scale of discounts
To do this, you need to do the following calculations:
1) determine the initial sales volume from which discounts begin (for example, 75,000 rubles);
2) establish an acceptable amount of margin for each level of discount that the company would like to receive;
3) the obtained sales volumes for each discount level can be rounded up to the nearest round number;
4) be sure to check how attractive such a scale of discounts is for customers.
For the variant when the trade margin is 20%, we get the following table (see Table 2).
Table 2. Calculation of the scale of discounts
|
Indicator |
Discount amount |
||||
|
10% |
|||||
|
Desired increase in margin |
1000 |
2000 |
4000 |
6000 |
|
|
Required sales volume with discount |
60 000 |
73 500 |
90 947 |
134 690 |
216 000 |
|
Rounded discounted sales |
75 000 |
95 000 |
135 000 |
220 000 |
|
|
Price list |
60000 |
75000 |
94737 |
144828 |
240000 |
|
Purchase cost |
50 000 |
62 500 |
78 947 |
120 690 |
200 000 |
|
Margin |
10 000 |
11 000 |
12 000 |
14 000 |
16 000 |
2. Contract discounts
This group of discounts should motivate the client to perform such contract terms that are beneficial to the company. Contract discounts can be based on the due date, a certain type of payment or currency, the purchase of a certain product line, etc.
To establish conditions for payment due date, payment currency and type of means of payment, the economic assessment can be the bank interest, conversion costs and banking services, and for the line and grade - the costs of freezing working capital and other benefits from a complex order.
Thus, the company sets conditions for the client, the fulfillment of which is interesting for the client and beneficial for the company. Conversely, it is possible to establish markups on terms that are unprofitable for the company.
Example 3
Discount due to the term of payment
The following scheme can serve as an example of establishing conditions for a payment term. There is a base price for the item when paid upon delivery. At the same time, it is possible to provide a grace period for the client for 30 days or receive an advance payment from the client for 30 days. If it is profitable for the company to motivate the client to pay earlier, you can set a discount for prepayment and, conversely, a markup for deferred payment.
The comparison rate can be a bank interest. Take, for example, 18% per annum or 1.5% per month. Thus, the company can set conditions slightly better than the bank rate (for example, a 2% discount for prepayment and a 2% markup for a deferred payment) in order for the client to be interested in paying for the goods earlier.
Example 4
Discount due to settlement currency
The clients of a company dealing in the sale of auto parts for foreign cars had the opportunity to pay for the goods with different types of cash currency (rubles, dollars and euros). But with the existing system of payment, dollars were in abundance, rubles were not enough, and at that time the euro had not yet received sufficient distribution.
Then a "currency flow map" was compiled and analyzed - that is, it was assessed to what extent the company receives different currencies and to what extent there is a need to spend it, taking into account all the conditions for conversion and cost banking services... After that, the conditions for accepting currency and the internal rate were carefully changed towards more favorable conditions from the point of view of the company.
Example 5
Discount due to a set of conditions
You can often come across a "retro-bonus" scheme (payment of the amount of the discount at the end of the month if a number of conditions are met). The total amount of the discount is made up of a set of conditions that the company needs to fulfill. For instance:
- for the fulfillment of the planned volume - 3%;
- for timely payment - 3%;
- for the selected line - 2%.
Thus, if all conditions are met, the client receives a total discount of 8%.
However, this scheme does not always work either. Sometimes clients (especially small ones) say: "Give me 3% now and I don't need any more." It is important not to forget the principle of attractiveness of the discount for the client and keep track of what really arouses his interest.
The next important point of the contract is the terms of delivery of the goods. The company may provide additional actions to stimulate customers to fulfill favorable conditions for it. For example, if there is a permanent fleet of vehicles, the seller should try to deliver goods by his own vehicles (within the limits of loading Vehicle), since the downtime of cars will one way or another affect financial results... And the stable loading of the vehicle fleet can bring benefits, both direct economic and indirect (in the form of convenience for customers).
The extra charge for the provision of an additional delivery service may be justified by the fact that its amount is slightly less than the cost of an alternative delivery service when the client uses a hired vehicle.
On the contrary, if the client has his own transport, he has the right to demand a discount. But in this case, the seller can set a discount slightly less than his own shipping costs.
3. Seasonal (holiday) discounts to redistribute demand
The use of seasonal discounts allows you to reallocate demand over time - to ensure a uniform load and reduce aggregate demand during peak periods.
Seasonality of demand is a common situation in conditions of limited production capacities of a company, when during the peak period it cannot meet all requests, and during the recession it is forced to stand idle. In this case, discounts are designed to redistribute demand over time and stimulate buyers to purchase goods before the onset of the season and, accordingly, reduce demand during peak periods.
Glossary
Switching costs are the costs that the purchaser will have to bear when switching to new product or a new seller. Costs can be both monetary (loss of discount) and psychological (habit, convenience for the buyer). the author.
Seasonal fluctuations can be for a long time (for example, during the summer months or new year holidays), and in short periods - a week and a day. Then the peak can be, respectively, weekends and evening hours. Therefore, some supermarkets offer discounts to retirees when they make a purchase up to 12 hours. An economic criterion for the effectiveness of such discounts can be the assessment of the benefits from the redistribution of demand and lost profits if the peak demand is not met.
If a company is purposefully preparing for an increase in purchasing activity, holiday discounts are sometimes used, the main purpose of which is to revitalize trade and attract a customer to its store during the period of a pre-predicted increase in purchasing activity.
4. Seasonal discounts for product disposal
Another type of seasonal discount is disposal discounts, the main purpose of which is to stimulate demand to eliminate stocks. If the company has not been able to sell all the goods that have seasonal demand during the peak sales period, then it has two options: to store these balances until the next season, or to provide discounts for the possible elimination of the balances. Therefore, an economic assessment for calculating such discounts is an estimate of the cost of storing products. In this case, both direct costs (mainly the use of the occupied space) and indirect costs (risks of physical and moral aging of goods, loss of presentation, etc.) should be taken into account. Thus, if the costs of storing the goods are high, and the calculated discount is really capable of attracting a sufficient number of buyers, then the use of this type of discounts is advisable.
Prevention of adverse tax consequences
When applying discounts, it is necessary to take into account the provisions of Article 40 Tax Code RF, which establishes the principles for determining the price of goods, works, services. By general rule for tax purposes, the price of goods, works or services specified by the parties to the transaction is assumed, and, until proven otherwise, it is assumed that this price corresponds to the level of market prices. But it should be remembered that if the price deviates by more than 20% upward or downward from the level of prices applied by the taxpayer for identical (similar) goods within a short period of time, the tax authorities can check the correctness of the application of transaction prices (sub. 4, clause 2, article 40 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation). If a deviation is revealed, they have the right to charge additional tax and penalties.
Therefore, if the maximum discount is 20% of the regular price level (if prices are kept at the average market level), then the tax authorities have no reason to find fault with the seller. If discounts of more than 20% are expected, then such actions must be explained by the fact that the discounts are due to the marketing policy of the taxpaying organization. Or seasonal and other fluctuations in demand. The tax authorities are obliged to take these factors into account when calculating the market price. The taxpayer has the right to refer to these and other circumstances listed in paragraph 3 of Article 40 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, protecting his interests.
However, such actions must be confirmed by appropriate documents. Without fail, they must be fixed in special internal documents. This can be an order or order of the head of the organization. In addition, an indication of the formation of the transaction price taking into account discounts within the framework of the marketing policy can also be reflected in the text of the sales agreement for goods sold at a discount in the invoice for payment for the goods. This is proof that the price of the product is not undervalued due to other reasons.
5. Attracting new customers and retaining old ones
The main task of discount systems aimed at attracting new buyers is to form, over a certain period of time, such conditions that would provide interest and induce the buyer to turn to this particular seller. Moreover, to achieve such a result, it is not necessary to reduce the price of all goods. It is enough to reduce it by only a few so-called “indicator” goods, the prices of which are remembered by the buyer and by which they judge the price level of the entire company.
“Indicator” goods should occupy a small volume of the total mass of goods sold, since a decrease in prices for most of the assortment or for “basic” goods can lead to significant economic losses. There can be no more than 3-5 such goods in each product category, and it is for them that the buyer should know the price level. Coverage of losses from a decrease in prices for some goods should be carried out at the expense of additional sales of other goods, for which the price may be overstated.
After the company has managed to attract new buyers, the next task is to retain them - the formation of such conditions under which the customer who made the first purchase will be interested in purchasing goods from this seller in the future. At the same time, the ideal option can be considered a situation in which each subsequent purchase will increase this interest more and more. This problem can be quite successfully solved using a system of cumulative discounts: they must be significant for the buyer and must exceed the cost of switching when contacting another company.
6. Dealer discounts
A separate category of discounts are discounts for dealers, distributors, wholesalers, firms that participate in the distribution system of the seller's products. A rough economic estimate for dealer discounts can be a discount value that is approximately equal to the cost of distribution services (or it is slightly less than the cost of organizing your own promotion channel).
So, if you correctly develop and calculate a system of discounts, then they will be economically beneficial both for the company itself and for the buyer. Moreover, the effect that the discount produces is measured not only economic benefit... A company that provides a discount to its customers demonstrates care, respect and increased interest in them, which most often provokes their loyalty to the company. And customer loyalty is worth more than money.
The creation of a formula for calculating economic efficiency could significantly simplify the life of enterprises. In order to increase the volume of profits, each company tries to improve the quality of products and increase its income or invest money in the production process in order to reduce costs.
Types of efficiency
Effectiveness falls into two categories. The first is economic. The second is socio-economic.
With economic efficiency, the criterion is the company's ability to maximize the amount of profit it earns. The criterion of socio-economic efficiency is the level of satisfaction of the interests and needs of the population.
Classic efficiency calculation
The general formula for calculating economic efficiency is as follows:
EkEf = P / Z, where
EkEF - economic efficiency;
Р - the result obtained from the investment;
З - costs incurred to achieve the result.
This formula can be used to calculate the economic efficiency of activities, the duration of which is calculated for a short period of time. In another case, this indicator is not able to reflect the feasibility of investment, since additional variables appear in the above formula.
Absolute efficiency
There is also a formula that displays absolute efficiency. It looks like this:
EE abs = (Eph 1 - Eph 0) / (I + K * K n), where
EE abs - economic efficiency;
Eph 1 - the overall result after the events;
Ef 0 - the result before the events;
And - total costs;
K - capital investment for events;
Standard coefficient
This index shows what the minimum acceptable efficiency can be in a particular area. The parameter is the same for all types of activities in a particular industry, but may differ depending on the area.
The ratio value ranges from 10 to 33 percent. In trade, this figure is 25%, in the industrial sector - 16%.
Efficiency of using production factors
Any enterprise has labor resources, basic and circulating means of production. The production process is unrealistic without them. Companies are also trying to improve their investment performance to improve performance.
To calculate the efficiency of using each of these factors, different methods are used. Some of them are based on the same principles.
Employee efficiency
Two dimensions are used to measure how effectively a business is using its workers. The first is development. The second indicator is labor intensity. Production is calculated as the ratio of the quantity of goods produced to the cost of personnel:
B = O / Z, where
B - production;
The labor intensity indicator is the opposite to the previous indicator and displays how much money must be spent on the personnel of the enterprise in order for one unit of production to be manufactured.
T = Z / O = B -1 = 1 / B, where
T - labor intensity;
B - production;
О - the volume of products manufactured at the enterprise;
З - the costs incurred by the enterprise for labor resources.
The formula for calculating the economic efficiency for labor resources companies can be displayed as follows:
EE tr = ((O 1 * C - Z 1) - (O 0 * C - Z 0)) / I, where
EE tr - economic efficiency for labor resources;
О 1 - the volume of products produced after investment in personnel;
C - product price;
О 0 - the volume of sales of products before investment in labor resources;
Fixed assets (OF)
There are two main parameters for calculating the efficiency of using PF: capital productivity and capital intensity. Return on assets is calculated as the ratio of the value of all products that were produced by the enterprise during one year to the average annual value of assets.
F about = VP / S this year, where
VP - all products of the company in monetary terms (including the cost of semi-finished products and work in progress);
Ф about - return on assets;
Since this year - the cost of the OF per 1 year on average.
The capital intensity indicator is the inverse to the return on fixed assets. You can determine the value of the coefficient using several formulas.
Ф e = (Ф о) -1 = 1 / Ф о, where
F e - capital intensity;
F about - return on assets.
In the event that the return on fixed assets (OS) indicator is not found, the capital intensity can be determined as follows:
Ф е = (С с.г. / ВП), where
F e - capital intensity;
VP - the cost of gross output in monetary terms;
Since this year - the average annual cost of fixed assets.
All companies are trying to reduce capital intensity and increase capital productivity. An example of the formula for calculating the economic efficiency of investments in fixed assets is presented below:
EE of = ((O 1 * C 1 - Z 1) - (O 0 * C 0 - Z 0)) / I, where
EE of - economic efficiency for fixed assets;
О 1 - the volume of products produced after investment in the fixed assets;
Ц 1 - product price after investment;
C 2 - the price of products before investing in fixed assets;
З 1 - the cost of manufacturing products after the events;
О 0 - the volume of sales of products before investments in fixed assets;
З 0 - the cost of manufacturing products before the events.
Working capital (Rev. S.)
To determine the effectiveness of using the working capital of the enterprise, three indicators are used:
- turnover ratio;
- turnover period;
- load factor Vol. WITH.
Turnover ratio C. Is the same as the return on assets for the OS. It is calculated by the formula:
K about = RP / S obs, where
K about - the coefficient of turnover;
The utilization rate is the inverse of the turnover rate:
K z = (K about) -1 = 1 / K about = C obs / RP, where
K z - load factor;
K about - the coefficient of turnover;
RP - goods sold by the company in monetary terms;
With obs - the average sum of the remainder of the Vol. WITH.
The turnover period is the number of days required for the circulating assets to make one full turnover, calculated as follows:
T about = D / K about = D * C obs / RP, where
T about - turnover time;
D - the number of days of the analyzed period;
K about - the coefficient of turnover;
RP - goods sold by the company in monetary terms;
With obs - the average sum of the remainder of the Vol. WITH.
The formula for improving the use of working capital is based not so much on additional profit how much to reduce costs.
EE obs = E y / I, where
EE obs - economic efficiency of working capital;
E y - conditional saving of working capital;
And - the size of the attachments.
Economic effect
Formulas for calculating economic efficiency and are widely used among companies that make short-term cash injections to improve certain aspects of their activities. The formula for calculating it is as follows:
Eph = D - I * K, where
Ef - economic effect;
D - income or savings from events;
And - the costs of holding events;
K n - standard coefficient.
Advertising efficiency
Advertising is a collection of marketing tools, the purpose of which is to disseminate information about goods, services, people, companies, as well as to attract customers. The formula for calculating the economic efficiency of advertising displays the result obtained after conducting advertising campaign... The formula for determining the coefficient looks like this:
EE p = (VD 1 - VD 0) / I, where
When calculating the effectiveness of the use of advertising media, it is very difficult to determine how much the gross income of an enterprise has grown precisely because of advertising. There is no guarantee that the company's revenue would not increase if the company did not advertise itself or its product. Despite this, the cost-effectiveness of advertising is still considered.
Economic efficiency of the company
The main indicator in the work of the company is net profit, a part of the proceeds that remains after all costs have been deducted and all taxes have been paid. There is no point in increasing revenues if costs increase the same or even faster.
Thus, the classical calculation of economic efficiency cannot always reflect how the proposed measures will ultimately affect the final result. This is due to the fact that it is calculated as the ratio of the result to the costs only for its achievement. In cases where the result is gross income, the indicator of economic efficiency is not accurate, since it does not take into account the possible increase in the volume of production costs.
The formula for calculating the economic efficiency of an enterprise can be expressed as follows:
EE n = (CP 1 - CP 0) / И, where
EE n - the economic efficiency of the enterprise;
CP 1 - net profit after investment;
BH 0 - net profit before investment.
Long-term investment project
All of the above methods of calculating efficiency can be applied only for short-term activities (up to one year). In the long run, the formula for the calculation does not take into account the discount factors that make it possible to calculate the feasibility of ownership, taking into account alternative income.
As such, there is no formula for calculating the economic efficiency of a project that is designed for a long term. Investment feasibility is calculated on the basis of the net present value, as well as the payback period, which reflects how long it takes to investment project paid off completely and began to make a profit.
Net is calculated as the sum of all payments and investment income, taking into account discount factors for each period. The TTS formula can be represented as follows:
ChTS = (CF / (1 + p) 1) + (CF / (1 + p) 2) + (CF / (1 + p) 3) + ... + (CF / (1 + p) n), where
NPV is the net present value;
CF - flow of payments (difference between income and expenses);
р - calculation interest;
n is the term of the investment project.
This parameter shows how effectively the investment funds are used. If the size of the NPV is higher or equal to zero, this means that it is advisable to carry out an investment project. In the event that the net present value is negative, the internal interest should be calculated to see how much the money has paid off.
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Profitability is an economic indicator that shows how efficiently resources are used: raw materials, personnel, money and other tangible and intangible assets. You can calculate the profitability of an individual asset, or you can calculate the entire company at once.
Profitability is calculated to predict profitability, compare a company with competitors, or predict the return on investment. The profitability of an enterprise is also assessed if they are going to sell it: a company that brings more profit and at the same time spends fewer resources is more expensive.
How profitability is calculated
There is a profitability ratio - it shows how efficiently resources are used. This ratio is the ratio of profit to the resources that have been invested to get it. The coefficient can be expressed in a specific amount of profit received per unit of the invested resource, or it can be expressed as a percentage.
For example, a company produces sour cream. 1 liter of milk costs 5 rubles, and 1 liter of sour cream costs 80 rubles. From 10 liters of milk, 1 liter of sour cream is obtained. From 1 liter of milk, you can make 100 milliliters of sour cream, which will cost 8 rubles. Accordingly, the profit from 1 liter of milk is 3 rubles (8 R - 5 R).
And another company makes ice cream. 1 kilogram of ice cream costs 200 rubles. To produce it, you need 20 liters of milk at the same price - 5 rubles per liter. From 1 liter of milk you get 50 grams of ice cream, which will cost 10 rubles. Profit from 1 liter of milk - 5 rubles (10 R - 5 R).
Profitability of the resource "Milk" in the production of ice cream: 5/5 = 1, or 100%.
Conclusion: the return on resources in the production of ice cream is higher than in the production of sour cream - 100%> 60%.
The profitability ratio can also be expressed in the amount of resources expended that were needed to get a fixed amount of profit. For example, to get 1 ruble of profit in the case of sour cream, you need to spend 330 milliliters of milk. And in the case of ice cream - 200 milliliters.
Types of profitability indicators
To assess the performance of a company, several profitability indicators are used. Each of them is calculated as a ratio net profit to some value:
- To assets - return on assets (ROA).
- To revenue - return on sales (ROS).
- Fixed assets - return on assets (ROFA).
- Money invested - return on investment (ROI).
- Equity - return on equity (ROE).
Profitability threshold
The profitability threshold is the minimum profit that covers costs. For example, investments, if we are talking about investments, or the cost price, if we are talking about production. When talking about the threshold of profitability, the term "break-even point" is most often used.
Return on assets (ROA)
ROA is calculated to understand how effectively a company's assets - buildings, equipment, raw materials, money - are used and how much profit they end up with. If the return on assets is below zero, then the company is operating at a loss. The higher the ROA, the more efficiently the organization uses its resources.
ROA = P / CA × 100%,
P - profit for the period of work;
CA - the average price of assets that were on the balance sheet at the same time.
Return on Sales (ROS)
Return on sales shows the share of net profit in the total revenue of the company. When calculating the ratio, gross profit or profit before taxes and interest on loans can also be used instead of net profit. Such indicators will be named accordingly - the gross profit margin on sales and the operating margin.
ROS = P / V × 100%,
P - profit;
B - revenue.
Return on Fixed Assets (ROFA)
Fixed production assets - assets that an organization uses to produce goods or services and which are not consumed, but only wear out. For example, buildings, equipment, electrical networks, cars, etc. ROFA shows the return on the use of fixed assets that are involved in the production of a product or service.
ROFA = P / Cs × 100%,
P is the organization's net profit for the required period;
Cs - the cost of fixed assets of the company.
Return on current assets (RCA)
Current assets are resources that are used by a company to produce goods and services, but which, unlike fixed assets, are completely consumed. Current assets include, for example, money in the accounts of an enterprise, raw materials, finished products in a warehouse, etc. RCA shows the effectiveness of current assets management.
RCA = P / Tso × 100%,
P - net profit for a certain period;
Tso - the value of current assets that were used for the production of goods or services during the same time.
Return on Equity (ROE)
ROE shows how well the money invested in the company is working. Moreover, investments are only authorized or share capital. To calculate the efficiency of using not only own, but also borrowed funds, use the return on capital employed - ROCE. He makes it clear how much income the company brings. Return on equity is compared not only with similar indicators of other companies, but also with other types of investments. For example, with interest on bank deposits, in order to understand whether it makes sense to invest in a business.
ROE = P / C × 100%,
P - profit;
K - capital.
Return on investment (ROI)
The return on investment indicator is analogous to the return on equity, but it is calculated for any type of investment. For example, bank deposits, exchange instruments, etc. ROI shows the return on investment.
ROI = P / Qi × 100%,
P - profit;
Qi is the price of an investment.
Production profitability
The profitability of production is the ratio of net profit to the value of fixed assets and working capital. In fact, the profitability of production shows the efficiency of the entire company. Diversified enterprises calculate profitability for each type of production separately. You can also calculate the profitability of production a separate kind products or the profitability of a specific area of production, such as a shop.
Rpr = P / (Ts + Tso) × 100%,
P - profit;
Cs - the cost of the company's fixed assets;
Цо - the cost of current assets, taking into account depreciation and depreciation.
Project profitability
The profitability of a project, in contrast to the profitability of an already operating production, is an attempt to assess how effective investments in new business... Project profitability is the ratio of future profit to all costs that will be needed to start a business. This indicator is calculated not only by those who start a business, but also by investors - in order to understand whether it makes sense to invest in this project.
As the ratio of the value of a business to the investment in its launch.
Rp = Sat / Qi,
Sat - the total cost of the business;
Qi is the amount of investment.
As the ratio of net income and depreciation expense to startup investment.
Rp = (P + A) / Qi,
P - net profit;
A - depreciation;
Qi - costs.
How to improve profitability
Profitability is the ratio of net profit to any other indicator: the value of current assets, fixed assets, capital, investments, etc. To increase profitability, you must either increase the value of the numerator - profit, or decrease the denominator - the value of assets, capital, investments, etc. .d.
For example, to increase your return on sales, you can improve product quality or develop effective marketing strategy- as a result, demand will increase and, as a result, profit. And you can reduce the cost of production - then profitability will increase with the same demand.
