Individual and household market. The consumer market is individuals and households who buy or otherwise acquire goods and services for personal consumption.

Producer market - organizations that purchase goods and services for use in the production process.

Reseller market - organizations that purchase goods and services for their subsequent resale at a profit for themselves.

4. The market for government agencies - government. organizations that purchase goods and services either for their subsequent use in the field of public services, or for the transfer of these goods and services to those who need them.

5. international market- Buyers outside the country, including overseas consumers, manufacturers, resellers and government agencies.

Any company operates in an environment contact audiences seven types:

1. Financial circles (banks, shareholders, company brokers, stock exchanges);

2. Contact audiences among information (organizations distributing news, articles, comments);

3. Contact audiences of the state. institutions;

4. Civic action groups (consumers, advocacy groups environment, representatives of national minorities);

5. Local contact audiences (local residents and community organizations);

General public

Internal contact audiences (own workers and employees).

Reference groups are groups that directly or indirectly influence the attitude or behavior of a person. Groups that have a direct impact on a person are called. member collectives: family, roles and statuses, personal factors, age and stage of the family life cycle, occupation, economic. position, lifestyle, personality type and self-image.

2 question. Models of consumer behavior in the markets.

It is necessary to understand that the customer is different from the customer (difference). And in order to win over the consumer, it is necessary to understand what he is guided by when choosing a product.

Key moment: - incentives of marketing: product, price, methods of distribution and sales promotion.

Buying Behavior Models:

a. Simple model.

The black box is the mind of the buyer (for us). The task is to reveal its contents. At the entrance to it - incentives for marketing and other irritants. The output is the choice that the buyer will make, the buyer's responses.

b. Expanded model.

The Black Box contains more detailed characteristics of the buyer (the more, the better) and the decision-making process.

Incentive factors- this is the whole set of marketing mix (product price, distribution, promotion) and other irritants (economic, scientific and technical, political, cultural).

Responsiveness - 5 choices:

1.selection of goods,

2. choice of brand.

3.dealer,

4.time,

5. object of purchase.

The task of the market operator is to understand what is happening in the black box of the consumer's consciousness..

There are several factors that directly influence purchasing behavior:

1. Factors of the cultural order(culture, subculture and factors of social status). TOculture- widely accepted views, norms and values that determine the behavior of members of a given society. Subculture - geographical features. Ethnic, national, educational. Social status- you can talk about social classes. Under public class usually refers to a collection of individuals or families that are characterized by similar beliefs, lifestyles, interests and behaviors.

2. Social factors Are reference groups (membership groups), family, roles and statuses. Under reference group usually means a certain set of people capable of influencing the relationship and behavior of a person. Family - as a guiding force, the most important shopping organization in society. Role and status - determine the position of the individual in individual groups and in society as a whole.

3. Psychological factors(motivation, perception, learning, experience, belief and attitude).

4. Personality or personal factors(age, stage life cycle family, occupation, lifestyle, personality type, self-image).

If we analyze the process of any of our purchases, we will see that it began long before the act of purchase and sale was completed. Moreover, this process continued for some time after the purchase and consisted in assessing our satisfaction with the purchased product.

A firm needs to scrutinize its customers. It can act in five types of clientele markets.

1. Consumer market - individuals and households purchasing goods and services for personal consumption.

2. Market of producers - organizations that purchase goods and services for use in the production process.

3. Market for resellers - organizations that acquire

goods and services for their subsequent resale at a profit

for yourself.

4. The market of government agencies - government organizations - purchasing goods and services either for their subsequent use in the field of public services, or for the transfer of these goods and services to those who need them.

5. International Market - Buyers abroad, including overseas consumers, manufacturers, resellers and government agencies.

Schwinn sells its bicycles in all of these markets. Some bicycles are sold to consumers directly from the factory or through retail outlets... It sells its bicycles to manufacturers who use them to deliver goods or travel on site. The firm also sells bicycles to wholesalers and retailers who resell them in consumer and manufacturer markets. She could sell. their bicycles and government agencies. And of course, she sells them to overseas consumers, manufacturers, resellers and government bodies... Each type of market has its own specific features that the seller needs to carefully study.

Competitors

Any firm faces many different competitors. Suppose the VP of Marketing wants to identify all the competitors of Schwnn<>. The best way do then conduct research on how people make decisions about buying a bike. A researcher may interview a freshman college student John Adams who is about to spend a certain amount of money (see 25). John ponders several options, including buying vehicle buying a stereo system or traveling to Europe. These are competing desires, i.e. desires that the consumer may want to satisfy. Suppose John Adams decides “that we need to improve our transportation the most. He has several options: buying a car, buying a motorcycle, or buying a bicycle. If the most attractive alternative turns out to be the purchase of a bicycle, John will think about what kind of bike to buy.A number of product-specific competitors appear, i.e. other varieties of the same product that can satisfy a specific desire of the buyer. there will be sin-, five- and de-penny bicycles. John will probably settle on a 10-speed bike, after which he will probably want to meet several competing brands. These are different brands of the same product that can satisfy his desire. Shvnnn, Rali, Sire, Azuki and Gitan.

Understanding exactly how consumers are accepting! a solution could make it easier for the VP of Marketing to identify any competitors that are preventing Schwipn from selling more of its bikes. The manager will want to take a closer look at all four types of competitors, paying special attention to competing brands, since they are actively discouraging sales from Schwinn.

Contact audiences

Part marketing environment also includes various contact audiences of the company. We define contact audiences as follows:

A contact audience is any group that has a real or potential interest in an organization, or influences its ability to achieve consistent goals.

A contact audience can either assist or counteract the firm's efforts to serve the markets. Beneficial Audience - A group whose interest in the firm is very benevolent (eg donors). The target audience is the one whose interest the firm seeks, but does not always find (for example, the media). An undesirable audience is a group whose interest the firm tries not to attract, but has to reckon with it if it manifests itself (for example, demand a boycott group).

A firm can develop marketing plans for all of its primary contact audiences as well as all client markets. Suppose a firm wants to get a response from a specific contact audience in the form of benevolence, appreciation, or donations of time or money. For the logo, the company will need to design a product that is attractive specifically for this contact audience.

Any firm operates and is surrounded by contact audiences of seven types (see 26).

1. Financial circles. Have an impact on the firm's ability to provide itself with capital. The main contact audiences in the financial sector are banks, investment companies, stock exchange brokerage firms, shareholders. Schwinn endeavors to promote the well-being of audiences by publishing annual reports, answering questions about all financial activities, and providing the financial community with evidence of their financial soundness.

2. Contact audiences of the media. Audience funds

information organizations that distribute news, articles and editorial comments. First of all, these are newspapers, magazines, radio stations and television centers. Schwinn is keen to see more and better media coverage of its activities, perhaps through articles on good exercise that is cycling or articles about the company's charity work.

3. Contact audiences of government agencies. Management must take into account everything that happens in the public sphere. Schwinn's market makers must respond to product safety issues, advertising truths, dealer rights, and the like. Schwinn should consider contacting other bike manufacturers to work together to push for more favorable laws.

4. Civil action groups. The marketing decisions made by the firm may raise questions from consumer organizations, environmental groups, members of national minorities, and the like. Parents, for example, are pushing for better bike safety. Schwinn has the potential to be a leader in the safest bike ever. Organization department public opinion a firm can help the firm maintain constant contact with all consumer groups (see Box 8 for another example).

5. Local contact audiences. Any firm deals with local contact audiences such as local residents and community organizations. To work with local population large firms usually appoint a dedicated community liaison officer who attends community meetings, answers questions, and contributes to solving urgent problems.

6. General public. The firm needs to meticulously monitor the attitude of the general public towards its products and its activities. Although the general public does not act as an organized force in relation to the firm, the image of the firm in the eyes of the public affects its commercial activities... To build a lasting image of its citizenship, Schwinn will be contributing representatives to community fundraising campaigns, making substantial donations to charitable causes, and developing consumer complaints procedures.

7. Internal contact audiences. Internal contact audiences of the firm include its own workers and employees, volunteers, managers, members of the board of directors. In order to inform and motivate members of their internal contact audiences, large firms publish information; newsletters and other forms of communication. When workers and employees are well-disposed towards their own firm, their positive attitude extends to other contact audiences.

Box 8... Civil Action Group Calls for Boycott of Nestlé Products

Even the most respected firm in the marketplace may one day trigger attacks from civil action groups on any of its products if, in the opinion of these groups, the firm is acting irresponsibly. By the way, most likely the disgruntled group will call for a boycott of all the company's products, even if all of them fell under the fire of criticism. The publicity of such a boycott could damage the good name of the firm, which took many years to develop.

In 1978, Nestlé was the target of such attacks. Headquartered in Switzerland, this firm produces well-known products such as chocolate bars, coffee, and a whole range of frozen foods. She also produces a mixture for baby food... The group that made the accusations against the firm is known as Infact, or the Coalition for Action Against Infant Formula Distribution. According to the group, Nes Tle aggressively imposes its mixture on mothers in Third World countries who do not know how to properly use it. The mixture is often diluted with dirty water, stored in poorly washed bottles, and it is not always possible to keep it in the refrigerator. As a result, children get sick. Fatalities have also been reported.

The Infact Group called for a worldwide boycott of all Nestlé products. The direct mail campaign she ran called “As many people as possible should know about this” and asked for financial aid to organize a wider distribution of the group's appeal. In the letters of the Infact group, all the branded bottles of Nestlé were listed. which consumers should have boycotted.

The firm, for its part, argued that it was marketing the formula responsibly and that it was often the best nutrition for babies under certain conditions. Nevertheless, the negative publicity was very unpleasant for the company. In March 1482, Nestlé agreed to abide by the United Nations Code of Health to encourage breastfeeding. The Code prohibits advertising of infant formula, the distribution of free samples, and the payment of commission to sellers.

Subculture. Any culture includes smaller components, or subcultures, which provide its members with the possibility of more specific identification and communication with their own kind. In large communities, there are groups of people of the same nationality, say, Ukrainians, Tatars, Germans or Azerbaijanis, showing clear ethnic tastes and interests. Separate subcultures with their specific preferences and prohibitions represent religious groups, such as groups of Orthodox Christians, Catholics, Muslims. There are also subcultures of geographic regions.

Social status. In almost every society there are different social classes, which can be defined as follows.

Public classes- these are relatively stable groups within society, which are arranged in a hierarchical order and are characterized by the similarity of values, interests and behavior of their members.

In the United States, for example, sociologists distinguish six social classes. In Russia, during the transition period, the class structure is only being formed.

Social classes have several characteristics. Individuals belonging to the same class tend to behave in much the same way. Depending on belonging to a particular class, people occupy a higher or lower position in society. Social class is defined on the basis of occupation, income, wealth, education, value orientation, and similar characteristics. Individuals can move to either a higher or a lower class. Each social class has its own preferences in clothing, household items, leisure activities, and car brands.

Social factors. Consumer behavior is also determined by factors of a social order, such as reference groups, family, social roles and statuses.

Reference groups. Numerous reference groups especially strongly influence human behavior. Reference groups- these are groups that have both direct and indirect influence on the relationship or behavior of a person. These are the groups to which the individual belongs and with which he interacts - family, friends, neighbors, and work colleagues. Seed groups are usually informal. In addition, a person belongs to a number of secondary groups, which, as a rule, are more formal and interaction with which is not permanent. These are different public organizations type of religious associations, trade unions.

An individual is also influenced by groups to which he does not belong. Desirable a collective is a group to which a person wants or seeks to belong. For example, a young footballer dreams of playing for a major league team, and he identifies with this team, although there is no direct contact. In this case, the person reproduces the preferences of the desired team. A unwanted collective - a group, the ideas and behavior of which the individual does not accept.

Reference groups influence people in three ways. First, the individual is confronted with new manifestations of behavior and way of life. Second, the group affects the relationship of the individual and his self-image, since he, as a rule, seeks to "fit" into the collective. Third, the group pushes the individual toward conformity.

Family. Family members can have a profound effect on a shopper's behavior. A person receives instructions from parents about religion, politics, economics, ambition, self-respect, love. Even when the buyer no longer interacts closely with his parents, their influence on his unconscious behavior can remain very significant. The individual's spouse and children have a more direct influence on day-to-day shopping behavior. The family is the most important consumer purchasing organization in society. The ratio of the influence of husband and wife varies widely depending on the product category.

Social roles and statuses. The individual is a member of many social groups. His position in each of them can be characterized in terms of role and status. For example, in relation to his parents, he plays the role of a son or daughter, in his own family - the role of wife or husband, within the company - the role of director. Role is a set of actions that are expected of an individual by those around him. Each of the roles played by a person will somehow influence his buying behavior.

Each role has a specific status, reflecting the degree of its positive assessment from the side of society. The role of the director has a higher status than that of the son or daughter. As a director, a person acquires clothes, a car, a watch that reflect precisely this role and its status. The buyer often opts for goods, which are used to judge his status in society.

Personal factors. The buyer's decisions are also influenced by their personal external characteristics, especially such as age, stage of the family life cycle, occupation, economic situation, lifestyle, personality type and self-image.

Age and stage of the family life cycle. Over time, there are changes in the assortment and nomenclature of goods and services purchased by people. In the first years of life, a person needs products for baby food. In the years of growing up and maturity, he eats a wide variety of foods, in old age - special dietary ones. His tastes for clothing, furniture, recreation and entertainment have changed over the years.

The nature of consumption depends on the stage of the family's life cycle. There are up to nine stages of family life with typical product preferences in each of them. The classification is carried out according to psychological stages life cycle of a person and family. They go through certain transitional periods, periods of transformation in their lives. It is necessary to take into account the changing consumer interests associated with the transition periods in the life of an adult.

Occupation. A certain influence on the choice of goods and services purchased by a person is exerted by his occupation. For example, a worker buys work clothes, work shoes, the president of a company buys expensive suits. The worker uses cheaper means of transport, the president of the company travels by plane, joins privileged clubs, etc. It is necessary to distinguish by occupation groups whose members show an increased interest in the goods and services of the company. You can specialize in the production of goods for a specific professional group.

Economic situation. The economic position of an individual has an enormous effect on his choice of goods. It is determined by the size of the expenditure side of income, his savings, creditworthiness. When offering products whose sales depend on the level of consumer income, you need to monitor trends in income, savings and interest rates. If economic indicators talk about a recession, it is necessary to change the product, its positioning and price, to reduce production volumes and stocks.

Lifestyle. Persons belonging to one subculture, one the public class and even the same occupation, they can lead a completely different way of life. For example, a woman may choose the life of a skillful housewife, a business woman, or a freewheeling man. She can play several roles at the same time. This is a way of life - established forms of a person's being in the world, which find their expression in his activities, interests and beliefs. It is necessary to identify the relationship between the product and the way of life.

Personality type and self-image. A huge influence on a person's purchasing behavior is exerted by his personality type, that is, a set of distinctive psychological characteristics that ensure the relative consistency and constancy of a person's responses to the environment.

Personality type is usually described on the basis of such inherent personality traits as self-confidence, alertness, influence, attachment, independence, aggressiveness, inconstancy, etc. Knowledge of the personality type is useful in analyzing consumer behavior when there is a certain connection between personality types and product choices. For example, a beer company may determine that beer consumers are more sociable and use this in retail and advertising practices.

Psychological factors. An individual's buying choices are also influenced by four basic psychological factors: motivation, perception, learning, persuasion, and attitude.

Motivation. At any given time, a person experiences a variety of needs. Some are a consequence of such states of internal physiological tension as hunger, thirst, discomfort, others - of such states of internal psychological tension as the need for recognition, spiritual closeness. A need that has reached a sufficiently high level of intensity becomes a motive.

Motive(or motivation) - a need that has become so urgent that it makes a person look for ways and means of its satisfaction. Satisfaction of the need reduces the internal tension experienced by the individual.

Psychologists have developed a number of theories of human motivation. The most popular of these are the theory of Sigmund Freud and the theory of Abraham Maslow.

Freud believed that people are generally not aware of the real psychological forces that shape behavior, that a person grows, suppressing many drives in himself. These drives never completely disappear and are never completely under control. Thus, a person is not fully aware of the origins of his own motivation.

Motivation researchers have made a number of interesting and sometimes bizarre conclusions about what can influence the consumer's mind when making certain purchases. For example, they believe that men smoke cigars as an adult alternative to thumb sucking.

Abraham Maslow believes that human needs are arranged in order of importance in a hierarchical order: first, physiological needs, then the needs of self-preservation, social needs, the need for respect and, finally, the need for self-affirmation. The person will strive to satisfy the most important needs first. As soon as he manages to satisfy some important need, it ceases to be a driving motive for a while. At the same time, an impulse appears to satisfy the next most important need. For example, a starving person is not interested in events in the world of art and politics.

Perception. A motivated person is ready for action. The nature of his actions depends on how he perceives the situation. Two different people being equally motivated, in the same objective situation they can act differently, since they perceive this situation differently. For example, one person may perceive a talkative salesperson to be arrogant, while to another the salesperson may appear helpful.

Perception can be defined as the process by which an individual selects, organizes and interprets incoming information to create a meaningful picture of the world around him.

Perception is always selective. A person is simply not able to respond to all stimuli. He eliminates most of them. People tend to notice stimuli related to their current needs, or those that are expected, or unusual.

Even irritants noticed by the consumer are not necessarily perceived by him as intended by the sender. Selective distortion occurs. A person seeks to fit the incoming information into the framework of his existing opinions. By selective bias, we mean the tendency of people to transform information, giving it personal value. People tend to interpret information in such a way that it supports, rather than challenges, their established ideas and judgments.

A person does not remember all the information received. Memorization is also selective. Much of what he learns, a person simply forgets. He tends to remember only information that supports his attitudes and beliefs. It should be borne in mind that most people immediately "mechanically" and for a short time remember a very small amount of information - a few words, a few simple images.

Such a feature as the selectivity of perception, distortion and memorization means that it is necessary to make a lot of efforts to bring your message to the addressees. This explains the dramatization and repetition in advertising, as well as the main requirement for advertising - brevity.

Assimilation. A person assimilates knowledge in the process of activity. Assimilation- these are certain changes that occur in the behavior of an individual under the influence of his accumulated experience. Human behavior is mostly learned. Assimilation is considered the result of the interaction of impulses, strong and weak stimuli, response reactions and reinforcement.

Belief and attitude. People have beliefs about specific products and services. From these beliefs, images of goods are formed. People take actions based on beliefs. If some beliefs are wrong and interfere with a purchase, the manufacturer needs to conduct an entire campaign to correct them.

Attitude- a stable favorable or unfavorable assessment by the individual of an object or idea, the feelings experienced towards them and the direction of possible actions, formed on the basis of available knowledge. Relationships determine people's willingness to love or dislike an object.

In addition, relationships determine relatively stable behavior in the case of similar objects. Relationships save physical and mental energy. Various relationships of an individual form a logically coherent structure in which a change in one element may require complex restructuring of a number of others. It is more profitable for a firm to take into account the existing relations of the Russian market than to try to change them.

Purchase decision making process

On the way to a purchase decision, a consumer goes through five stages: understanding the problem, seeking information, evaluating options, making a purchase decision, and responding to a purchase. The buying process begins long before the act of sale and purchase, and its consequences manifest themselves long after it is completed. The consumer goes through all five stages with any purchase. However, when making everyday purchases, he seems to skip some stages, relying on stereotypes, or changes their sequence.

Awareness of the problem. The prospective buyer feels the difference between his real and the desired state. Need can be agitated internal irritants. Common human needs - hunger, thirst - rise to a threshold level and become impulses. From past experience, a person knows how to cope with this urge, and his motivation is oriented towards the class of objects that are able to satisfy the arisen urge.

Need can be agitated and external irritants. For example, the sight of freshly baked bread makes you feel hungry.

It is necessary to identify the circumstances that push a person to realize the problem. It is necessary to find out: what tangible needs or problems have arisen, what caused them to arise, how they brought a person to a specific product. It is possible to identify the stimuli that most often attract the interest of the individual to the product, and use them.

Search for information. An agitated consumer may or may not be looking. additional information... If the impulse is strong and a product that can satisfy it is readily available, the consumer is more likely to make a purchase. If not, then the need may simply be stored in his memory.

In search of information, a consumer can turn to personal sources (family, friends, neighbors, acquaintances), use commercial sources (advertising, sellers, dealers, packaging, exhibitions). Information is offered by publicly available sources (mass media, organizations engaged in the study and classification of consumers). Sources of empirical experience (touch, study, use of the product) are important.

The relative influence of these sources of information varies according to the product category and the characteristics of the customer. The consumer receives the largest amount of information about the product from commercial sources. The most effective are personal sources. The source can influence purchasing decisions in different ways. Commercial sources usually inform, personal sources legitimize information and give it an assessment.

Familiar brands of goods were awareness kit consumer. New information will broaden the scope of this kit and help weed out a number of brands from the list. The remaining brands that meet the purchasing criteria will be selection kit. The final choice will be made from this kit.

The firm must develop a marketing mix that incorporates its product into both the awareness kit and the consumer choice kit. If it is not possible to penetrate these kits, then the product will not be sold. It is also necessary to find out what other brands of goods are included in the selection kit in order to know competitors and argue the advantages of your product.

Sources of information used by consumers need to be carefully identified and their comparative information value determined. Consumers should, first of all, ask how they first heard about the product, what other information they have, what value they attach to each of the sources of information used. This information is critical to effective communication with the target market.

Evaluation of options. The consumer uses the information in order to compose for himself a set of brands of goods, from which the final choice is made. It is important to understand how the choice is made among several brands, how the consumer evaluates the information.

Each consumer considers any given product as specific set of properties. For example, for a lipstick, this is color, type of packaging, prestige, fat content, taste and aroma, and for a tire - safety, tread durability, smooth running. These properties are usually of interest to everyone, but different consumers consider different properties to be relevant for themselves. A person pays most attention to properties that are related to his need.

The consumer is inclined to attach different importance to the properties that he considers relevant to himself. Any product has characteristic properties. Characteristic properties- these are the ones that first of all come to the mind of the consumer when he is asked to think about the qualities of the product. They should not be assumed that they are necessarily the most important.

The consumer tends to create for himself a set of beliefs about the brands of goods, when each individual brand is characterized by the degree of presence in it of each individual property. A set of beliefs about a particular brand name is known as image of the brand. The consumer can know the true properties of the product by my own experience or his knowledge may be the result of selective perception, distortion and memorization.

It is believed that the consumer assigns to each property utility function. It describes the degree of expected satisfaction with each individual property. The consumer's attitude to the commodity alternative is formed as a result of his assessment.

Purchase reaction. Having bought a product, the consumer will be either satisfied or dissatisfied with it. He will have a number of purchase reactions that are of interest.

Satisfaction with your purchase. Satisfaction with a purchase is determined by the relationship between consumer expectations and the perceived performance of the product. If the product meets expectations, the consumer is satisfied; if it exceeds them, then the consumer is very satisfied; if it does not correspond to them, then it is dissatisfied. Consumer expectations are shaped by information they receive from sellers, friends, and other sources. If the seller exaggerates the characteristics of the product, the consumer will have too high expectations, which will turn into disappointment.

Actions after purchase. Satisfaction with the product will be reflected in the subsequent behavior of the consumer. If satisfied, he will probably buy the product next time. A satisfied consumer tends to share favorable product reviews with others.

An unsatisfied consumer may refuse to use the product, return it to the seller, or try to find some favorable information about the item of purchase. Disgruntled customers can file a complaint with the firm, contact a lawyer, or someone who may be able to help customers achieve satisfaction. In addition, they may simply stop purchasing the product or express their unfavorable impression of it to friends and others.

The ultimate fate of the purchased product. If the consumer adapts the product for use in some new purpose, the seller should become interested, since this can be played up in advertising. If consumers put away a product, hardly use it, or get rid of it, it means that the product is not very satisfying to them. Equally interesting is how the consumer gets rid of the product. If he sells it or exchanges it, it will reduce the volume of sales of the product.

Features of making a decision to purchase a new product

A "novelty" refers to a product, service or idea that some potential customers perceive as something new. New product may have been on the market for a while. How do consumers first know about it, how do they perceive it? By perception we mean not only the thought process through which an individual goes from the moment he first hears about a new product until the moment of its final acceptance, but also the individual's decision to become a regular user of the product.

Stages of the process of perception. The process of perceiving a new product consists of five stages.

Awareness. The new product is known, but there is not enough information.
Interest. The consumer is motivated to search for information about the new product.
Grade. The consumer decides whether it makes sense to try out the novelty.
Try. The consumer tests the novelty and evaluates it.
Complete perception (perception).

The consumer decides to use only the novelty. Individual differences of people in their readiness to perceive innovations. People differ markedly from each other in their willingness to try new product... Each product area will have its own pioneers and early adopters. Other people perceive new items much later. This made it possible to classify buyers according to the degree of their receptivity. After a slow start, more and more people begin to perceive the novelty. Over time, their number reaches a peak, and then the percentage decreases as the number of those who have not yet accepted the product decreases.

The first 2.5% of buyers consider the first 2.5% of buyers to be innovators, the next 13.5% refer to the early adopters. The early majority - “late followers” - make up 34%, the later, skeptical majority - also 34%. Some are wary of change and use the novelty when it has become, in fact, a traditional commodity. This is 16% of the “lagging behind”.

The role of personal influence. Personal influence plays an important role in the process of perception of new products. By personal influence, we mean the effect that claims made by one person about a product have on the relationship of another person, on the likelihood of making a purchase.

When it comes to new items, personal influence is most significant during the evaluation phase. It makes a greater impression on the "late followers" than on the "early" ones. In situations of risk, it turns out to be more effective than in situations of harmlessness.

Influence of product characteristics. The nature of the innovation affects the rate at which it is perceived. Some products literally gain popularity overnight, while others take a long time to do so. The pace of perception of a novelty is especially influenced by its five characteristics. Let's consider them on the example of personal computers for use in everyday life.

The first characteristic of the novelty is comparative advantage- the degree of its apparent superiority over existing goods. The higher the perceived benefits of using personal computers, say, in education, in games, the sooner computers will be perceived.

The second characteristic of the novelty is compatibility- the degree of conformity with accepted consumer values and consumer experience. Personal computers, for example, are perfectly compatible with the lifestyle of middle-class families.

The third characteristic of the novelty is complexity- the degree of relative difficulty in understanding its essence and use. Personal computers are complex and therefore take a long time to enter the market.

The fourth characteristic of the novelty is divisibility of the process of getting to know her- the possibility of testing it on a limited scale. If people have the opportunity to rent personal computers with the subsequent purchase option of their choice, the pace of perception will increase.

The fifth characteristic of the novelty is communication visibility- the degree of visibility or the possibility of describing the results of its use. Since personal computers are amenable to demonstration and description, this will facilitate their faster distribution in society.

Other characteristics of a novelty that affect the rate of its perception are the initial price and current costs. Consideration should be given to the degree of risk and uncertainty, scientific credibility and public acceptance.

Lecture 12

BUYER BEHAVIOR MODELS

The main question for marketing managers is: how exactly do consumers respond to the various marketing techniques that the firm may employ? A firm that really understands how consumers react to various product characteristics, prices, advertising arguments has a huge advantage over its competitors.

Marketing incentives and other irritants enter the mind of the buyer and elicit certain responses. Marketing incentives include four elements: product, price, distribution and incentive. Other irritants are the main forces and events of the economic, scientific, technical, political and cultural environment surrounding the buyer. In the mind of the buyer, these stimuli cause consumer reactions: the choice of a product, a firm, a dealer, the time and volume of the purchase.

The consciousness of each customer has certain characteristics. These characteristics - the characteristics of the buyer - have a major impact on how a person perceives and reacts to stimuli.

The consumer market is defined as individuals and households who buy or otherwise acquire goods and services for personal consumption.

On purchases made by consumers big influence render cultural, social, personal and psychological factors.

Cultural factors. Cultural factors have the greatest and deepest influence on consumer behavior. Culture is the root cause that determines the needs and behavior of a person. From the moment of birth, a child learns a basic set of values, preferences, manners and actions characteristic of his family and the basic institutions of society.

Social status. In almost every society there are different social classes, which can be defined as follows.

Public classes - these are relatively stable groups within society, which are arranged in a hierarchical order and are characterized by the similarity of values, interests and behavior of their members.

In the United States, for example, sociologists distinguish six social classes. In Russia, during the transition period, the class structure is only being formed.

Social classes have several characteristics. Individuals belonging to the same class tend to behave in much the same way. Social class is defined on the basis of occupation, income, wealth, education, value orientation, and similar characteristics. Each social class has its own preferences in clothing, household items, leisure activities, and car brands.

Social factors. Consumer behavior is also determined by factors of a social order, such as reference groups, family, social roles and statuses.

Reference groups. Numerous reference groups especially strongly influence human behavior. Reference groups - these are groups that have both direct and indirect influence on the relationship or behavior of a person. These are the groups to which the individual belongs and with which he interacts - family, friends, neighbors, and work colleagues.

Family. Family members can have a profound effect on a shopper's behavior. A person receives instructions from parents about religion, politics, economics, ambition, self-respect, love. The individual's spouse and children have a more direct influence on day-to-day shopping behavior. The family is the most important consumer purchasing organization in society. The ratio of the influence of husband and wife varies widely depending on the product category.

Personal factors. The buyer's decisions are also influenced by his personal external characteristics, especially such as age, stage of the family life cycle, occupation, economic situation, lifestyle, personality type and self-image.

The nature of consumption depends on the stage of the family's life cycle. They go through certain transitional periods, periods of transformation in their lives. It is necessary to take into account the changing consumer interests associated with the transition periods in the life of an adult.

Occupation. A certain influence on the choice of goods and services purchased by a person is exerted by his occupation. For example, a worker buys work clothes, work shoes, the president of a company buys expensive suits. The worker uses cheaper means of transport, the president of the firm travels by plane, joins privileged clubs, and so on. It is necessary to distinguish by occupation groups, whose members show an increased interest in the goods and services of the company. You can specialize in the production of goods for a specific professional group.

Economic situation. The economic position of an individual has an enormous effect on his choice of goods. It is determined by the size of the expenditure side of income, his savings, creditworthiness. When offering products whose sales depend on the level of consumer income, you need to monitor trends in income, savings and interest rates. If economic indicators indicate a recession, it is necessary to change the product, its positioning and price, to reduce production volumes and stocks.

Lifestyle. Individuals belonging to the same subculture, social class and even the same occupation can lead completely different lifestyles. For example, a woman may choose the life of a skillful housewife, a business woman, or a freewheeling man. She can play several roles at the same time. This is a way of life - established forms of a person's being in the world, which find their expression in his activities, interests and beliefs. It is necessary to identify the relationship between the product and the way of life.

Personality type and self-image. A huge influence on a person's buying behavior is exerted by his personality type, i.e. a set of distinctive psychological characteristics that ensure the relative consistency and consistency of human responses to the environment.

Psychological factors. An individual's buying choices are also influenced by four basic psychological factors: motivation, perception, learning, persuasion, and attitude.

Psychologists have developed a number of theories of human motivation. The most popular ones are theory Sigmund Freud and theory Abraham Maslow.

Perception. A motivated person is ready for action. The nature of his actions depends on how he perceives the situation. Two different people, being equally motivated, in the same objective situation can act differently, because they perceive this situation differently. For example, one person may perceive a talkative salesperson to be arrogant, while to another the salesperson may appear helpful.

Perception can be defined as the process by which an individual selects, organizes and interprets incoming information to create a meaningful picture of the world around him.

Consumer market - individuals and households who buy or otherwise acquire goods and services for personal consumption.

A detailed model of purchasing behavior is shown in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1. Expanded purchasing behavior model

We represent the characteristics of the buyer in the form of a diagram (Figure 5.2.)

Rice. 5.2. Buyer characteristics

Let's take a closer look at some of the factors.

The human life cycle includes the following stages:
1. Stage of single life (young singles living separately from their parents).
2. Young newlyweds without children.
3. "Full nest" first stage ( youngest child less than six years).
4. "Full nest" second stage (the youngest child is six years old or more).
5. "Full nest" third stage (elderly spouses with children in their care).
6. "Empty nest" first stage (elderly spouses, whose children are already living separately, the head of the family is working).
7. "Empty nest" second stage (elderly spouses, whose children live separately, the head of the family is retired).
8. The dowager works.
9. A retired widow.

The personality type that characterizes one's own "I" is usually described on the basis of such inherent traits as influence, independence, inconstancy, deference, lust for power, sociability, alertness, affection, aggressiveness, self-control, striving for success, love of order, adaptability.

The market operator should strive to create a brand image that matches the self of the target market members.

From psychological factors, let us dwell on the concept of motive. The motive is a need that has become so urgent that it makes a person look for ways and means of satisfying it. There are several theories of behavior motivation.

1. Freud's theory of motivation, in which he argues that people are basically unaware of those real psychological forces that shape their behavior, suppressing many drives. However, you can never completely suppress the drives of a person, because suppression is necessarily manifested in neurotic behavior, obsessive states, psychosis.

2. Maslow's theory of motivation tries to explain why some people spend a lot of time on self-preservation, while others on gaining the respect of others? He developed a hierarchy of needs (Figure 5.3.), In which human needs are ranked in order of importance from most to least urgent. As soon as a person manages to satisfy some important need, it ceases to be a driving motive for a while and an urge appears to satisfy the next most important need.

Rice. 5.3. Maslow's hierarchy of needs

The factors listed in the diagram (Fig. 5.2.) Give an idea of how to more effectively attract and serve a customer.

As a result of the collection of information, consumer awareness of the brands of goods available on the market and their properties is increased. In a practical sense, the firm must develop a marketing mix that incorporates its brand into both the awareness kit and the consumer choice kit. If the product fails to penetrate these kits, the firm will miss the opportunity to sell its product.

The sequence of kits involved in the purchasing decision making process is shown in Figure 5.4.

Figure 5.4. Consistency of kits when making a purchasing decision

The buying decision can be held back by other people's attitudes or unforeseen circumstances.

Figure 5.5. Typical customer timing function

Before developing marketing plans, you need to understand the markets. In the consumer market, people buy goods and services for personal consumption. This market consists of many sub-markets such as the market for young people, the elderly, etc.

Buyer's behavior is influenced by four main groups of factors: cultural level factors (culture, subculture and social status), social factors (reference groups, family, roles, statuses), personal factors (age, stage of the family life cycle, occupation, image life, personality type and self-image) and psychological factors (motivation, perception, belief and attitude). They all provide insights into how to effectively serve and reach a customer.

The job of the market maker is to understand the different actors in the buying process and to understand the main factors influencing buying behavior in order to create an effective marketing program.

Consumer market - individuals and households who buy or otherwise acquire goods and services for personal consumption. This market consists of many sub-markets.
Shopper behavior is influenced by four main groups of factors:

Cultural order (culture, subculture and social status).
Social order (reference groups, family, roles and statuses).
Personal order (age and stage of the family life cycle, occupation, economic situation, lifestyle, self-image).
Psychological order (motivation, perception, assimilation, beliefs and attitudes).

Before planning its marketing, a firm needs to identify all of its customers, determine their purchasing decision-making process, understand the various participants in the consumer market, and establish the main factors influencing buying behavior.