Political activity there is a form of social life of politics. Politics in the proper sense of the word is a sphere of activity associated with the implementation of the needs and interests of various groups of people, the core of which is the conquest, retention and use state power.
Each sphere of society's life: economic, social, spiritual, etc., is characterized by a set of inherent forms and types of activities and social relations. Special place occupies political activity, which is the main content of politics, political life. Defining the content of political activity means giving an essential definition of politics. And, apparently, it should start with the definition of the concept of "activity". In scientific literature, activity in the broad sense of the word is understood as a specific form of active attitude to the surrounding world, the content of which is its purposeful change and transformation in the interests of people. The activity of a person or a group of people appears as an ordered process consisting of a number of interrelated elements: an object and a subject, the purpose of the activity, the means of activity, the result of the activity. The above provisions can be entirely attributed to politics, which is one of the most widespread types of human activity.
Political activity, therefore, can be defined as the systematic deliberate intervention of individuals and groups of people in the system of political relations in order to adapt it to their interests. In turn, political activity appears as a continuous series of specific political actions, which can be called certain actions, actions of intention or spontaneously undertaken by an individual or a group of people in order to cause certain political results, consequences.
The essence of political activity is revealed when characterizing its structural elements:
The subjects of political activity are direct participants in political actions - social groups and their organizations;
The objects of political activity are the existing social and political system, which the subjects of political activity seek to change and transform. The political structure is the unity of the social-class structure of society, the entire totality of social relations and the constitutional mechanism of politics, that is, the political system;
The goal of political activity in the broad sense of the word is either to strengthen the existing type of political relations, or to partially transform or destroy them and create a different socio-political system. The divergence of goals of various social subjects gives rise to the acuteness of their political confrontation. Defining the goals of political action is difficult scientific challenge and at the same time - art. Absolutely and relatively unrealizable goals are called political utopias. However, in politics, the possible is often achieved only due to the fact that its participants strove for the impossible behind it. French poet and publicist Lamartine called utopias "prematurely expressed truths."
The motive of political activity is what prompts people to be active, what they start to act for (from the French motif - I move). Among the motives of paramount importance belongs to the interests of society as a whole: ensuring security, public order. Then there are the interests of class and those social groups the interests of small social groups and individual individuals close the scale of interests. For a political action to take place, the social subject's awareness of his needs and interests is important. A theoretically expressed awareness of interests is called ideology.
The means of political action in dictionaries are defined as techniques, methods, objects, devices used to achieve goals. With regard to methods, in politics as means (methods) can be considered any actions, actions performed individually or collectively and aimed at preserving or changing the existing political reality. It is impossible to give a sufficiently complete list of means in politics, but some of them are: rallies, demonstrations, manifestations, elections, referendums, political speeches, manifestos, meetings, negotiations, consultations, decrees, reforms, uprisings, negotiations, putsches, revolutions, counter-revolutions, terror, wars.
The results of political action are expressed in those changes in the socio-political structure, which were the result of the actions undertaken, both general and local. Specifically, they can be expressed depending on the type of existing political actions - revolution, reform or coup, - their results can be varying degrees of change in the system of organization of power: replacement of the subject of power (revolution); changes in the power of power (reform); an increase in the volume of power, personal changes in power (coup).
Depending on the changes that political actions cause, three main types of actions can be distinguished:
Revolutions, uprisings, counter-revolutions as political actions differ: in the sphere of relations of domination and subordination - by the change of the ruling social class; in the sphere of power - the change of the ruling group by means of violence against the former groups;
Reform and counter-reform as political actions do not lead to the destruction of the foundations of the existing power of the ruling groups, but only fix concessions on their part, they are carried out "from above" using legal means;
Political coups - a state or "palace" coup, putsch, conspiracy as political actions lead to changes only within the existing government, primarily to personal changes in the center that makes political decisions.
All three of these types of political actions are important for the organization of political life, but even more significant are the actions carried out by the ruling elite, the entire system under its control. social institutions and, above all, the state and referred to as domestic and foreign policy.
A different structuring of political activity is also possible, when such basic blocks are distinguished in it as:
Professional political activity, in turn, realized as political functioning (the activities of the political bureaucracy, officials, apparatuses) and political leadership - constituting the core of management social processes in society. However, identifying political leadership with any kind social management unlawful. The main content of political leadership: development, adoption and implementation of decisions that regulate the activities of political and civil society;
Political participation refers to a variety of individual and group non-professional activities related to politics. The forms of political participation can be very diverse in direction, meaning, and effectiveness. Distinguish between active, proactive, passive, supportive participation. The most significant types of political participation can be: activities in political organizations, movements, parties; attending political meetings; electoral activity. The literature distinguishes between: direct and indirect participation; autonomous and mobilized. The most important function political participation - the formation of policy and control over its implementation, the formation and establishment of political culture, control over the behavior of political elites.
The political activity of people is inextricably linked with their behavior. In the literature, there is no unambiguous understanding of the category of "political behavior", there are three points of view on this issue:
1. Behavior is an external manifestation of political action;
2. Political behavior and political action are identical concepts;
3. Political behavior is a specific form of political activity.
The specificity of political behavior is as follows:
This is primarily a subject-subject relationship, while political activity is primarily a subject-object relationship;
Political behavior is a type of activity that is directed at the subject himself and expresses his state in the process of action.
G.P. The eternal considers behavior as a type of activity aimed at changing the state of the subject, and not at changing what is outside the subject.
The foregoing allows us to note that the concept of "behavior" refers to any political actions that characterize the state of the subject during activity. This interpretation of this concept corresponds to its definition from a psychological point of view. The specificity of political behavior, in contrast to activity, is manifested in the specific types of its subjects. These are individuals, groups, masses, crowds. Accordingly, the types of behavior differ: individual, group, mass. In addition, behavior can be classified: based on motives - conscious, unconscious, arbitrary, spontaneous; according to situational characteristics - stable, unstable, crisis, unexpected; by means of manifestation - riot, protest, mass discontent; by duration - long-term, short-term; in direction - conscious, controlled, uncontrolled (impulsive, pathological).
Thus, despite the fact that political behavior is inseparable from political activity, its analysis does not duplicate the explanation of political activity, but allows one to reveal the state of subjects of various levels and modifications in various processes of this activity.
Literature
1. Melnik V.A. Political science: Textbook for universities. - Minsk, 1996. - Ch. 9. - § 1.
2. Zerkin D.L. Fundamentals of Political Science: A course of lectures. - Rostov n / D., 1997 .-- S. 306-325.
3. Political science: A course of lectures / Ed. M.N. Marchenko. - M., 1999 .-- S. 301-316.
4. Demidov A.K. Political activity. - Saratov, 1987.
Lecture 12
Control questions and job protection
Methodology and order of work
Apparatus and materials
To perform laboratory work, the following equipment and materials are required:
A personal computer containing an Intel 804486 or higher microprocessor;
Hard magnetic disk with a capacity of 1 GB or more;
Operating system Windows family versions not lower than 98;
EXCEL table processor.
1. Turn on the computer.
2. Download the EXCEL program.
3. Create three payroll sheets, respectively, for departments: department1, department2, department3 on three sheets in one book of the following form:
There should be 10 records in the table.
On the next sheet, create a pivot table:
Issuance summary sheet wages to employees of LLC "Computer World"
4.Save the book in your folder, choose a name at random.
1. The form of the report is written.
2. Describe the work performed during the laboratory work.
3. Demonstrate this work on a PC.
4. Answer security questions.
1. Tell us about the method of transferring data from one table to another?
2. How is the method of copying data using the Edit, Copy commands different from the method discussed in this lab?
3. How do I propagate values across the entire pivot table?
4. How can I use the average formula using the Function Wizard?
5 What other options does the Function Wizard provide?
1) Political activity.
2) Political leadership.
3) Typology of leaders.
1) Political activity. The functioning of a political system is the process of action of its subjects: state institutions, parties, public organizations, elites, leaders and all citizens. The state, for example, as M. Weber noted, is a complex of specific joint actions of people.
The concept of activity encompasses all the variety of forms of active attitude of people to the surrounding world - natural and social, including its expedient change in accordance with human needs. Each sphere of society's life (economic, social, spiritual, etc.) is characterized by a set of inherent forms and types of activity, as well as social relations.
A special place is occupied by political activity, which constitutes the main content of the political sphere of life. Political activity is a set of organized actions of subjects both within the political system and outside it, subordinate to the implementation of common social interests and goals. Basically, political activity is the leadership and management of public relations with the help of institutions of power. Its essence is the management of people, human communities.
The specific content of political activity is: participation in the affairs of the state, determination of the forms, tasks and directions of the state's activities, the distribution of power, control over its activities, as well as other impact on political institutions. Each of the points noted generalizes a variety of activities: the direct performance by people of political functions within the institutions of state power and political parties and indirect participation associated with the delegation of authority to certain institutions; professional and non-professional activities; leading and executing activities aimed at strengthening the given political system or, on the contrary, at its destruction; institutionalized or non-institutionalized activities (for example, extremism); systemic or non-systemic, etc. M. Weber, speaking about the composition of political activity, emphasized, first of all, the activity to maintain order in the country, that is, “existing relations of domination”.
If we talk about the institutions that are part of the political system, then the activities of each of them have natural characteristics and, above all, different means of achieving them. Each political and social institution is essentially a certain system activities.
The essence of political activity is revealed in the specifics of its object and structural elements: subject, goals, means, conditions, knowledge, motivation and, finally, the process of activity itself.
The direct object of political activity is political values, institutions, the political system as a whole and the social groups, parties, elites, and leaders standing behind them.
The sphere of political activity does not include society as a whole, not social-class relations in all possible aspects, but only the relations of society, social groups, classes, strata, elites to the institutions of political power and the latter to society.
The action of an individual person acquires a political meaning insofar as it is included in the system of social relations and is an element of group activity. There is also another point of view on the content of political activity. According to M. Weber, political action (like any social action, you can understand only on the basis of the behavior of individuals.
Unlike other subjects of social action, the subject of political activity is characterized, first of all, by the fact that it always acts as an organized (in one form or another form and degree) social force. The political forces acting in a given situation, in a given political process, are always social groups, classes, strata organized in one way or another, national communities, and finally, international associations (state unions, movements, etc.). Political action in any case is the action of groups of people (not separate, scattered individuals), united by a certain common goal and guided by the general rules of the "game". The highest form of organization of political activity is political institutions, including the state and political parties.
2) Political leadership. The unequal position of participants in political life in the political hierarchy is due to their varying degrees of closeness to power and the ability to make strategic decisions, as well as their ability to influence social change. Even within the elite, some of its members differ from others in their priority in terms of their influence on society. A person who has a constant and decisive influence on society, state, organization is called a political leader. The tasks of the leaders include the development of agreed development goals, the distribution of functions and roles among the participants in social interactions, the streamlining of the behavior of the integral elements of the system in order to increase the efficiency of the functioning of society as a whole. Thus, the actual significance of the leadership problem is associated with the search for effective forms of leadership and management of social processes.
Leadership theory. Public leadership is a social function conditioned by the ability of a person to consciously set goals of general significance and determine the ways to achieve them within the framework of political institutions created for this. The specific forms and methods of leadership implementation depend on the cultural maturity of society, the level of autonomy of various interest groups, and the awareness of the need for collective action to support the progress of the social system as a whole.
You can understand the phenomenon of leadership and its evolution by analyzing its components: 1) the nature of the leader; 2) his political convictions; 3) motivation for political activity; 4) the properties of his supporters and all political subjects interacting with him; 5) the specific historical situation of the leader's coming to power; 6) technology of leadership implementation. A holistic and multifaceted picture of the manifestation of leadership develops in the course of the evolution of society, the complication of social relationships, which actualize the specific functions of a leader.
In primitive In societies, the functions of a leader are weakly manifested and are reduced mainly to ensuring the physical survival of the community members. The leaders themselves appear as heroes endowed with special physical qualities and moral dignity. Thus, Plato portrayed the leader as a person with an innate inclination for knowledge, distinguished by a resolute rejection of lies, a love of truth. According to him, the leader is inherent in modesty, nobility, justice, generosity, spiritual perfection.
The ethical and mythological tradition in the analysis of political leadership retained its influence in the Middle Ages, bringing into it the idea of God's chosen leaders, in contrast to ordinary mortals.
N. Machiavelli transferred the problem of political leadership from the realm of the imaginary and ought to the plane real life... In the works "Sovereign" and "Reflections on the first decade of Titus Livy" he defined the nature, functions and technology of leadership. The character of the leader N. Machiavelli deduced from the interaction of the ruler and subjects. A wise leader combines the qualities of a lion (strength and honesty) and the qualities of a fox (hoax and clever pretense). Therefore, he possesses both innate and acquired qualities. By nature, a person is given less than he receives while living in society. He is straightforward, cunning or talented by birth, but ambition, greed, vanity, cowardice are formed in the process of socialization of the individual.
The incentive to be active is dissatisfaction. The fact is that people want more every time, but they cannot always achieve this. The gap between the desired and the actual creates a dangerous tension that can break a person, make him greedy, envious and insidious, since the desire to receive exceeds our strength, and opportunities are always lacking. As a result, there is dissatisfaction with what the person already owns. N. Machiavelli called this state dissatisfaction. It is she who contributes to the transformation of the desired into reality.
The role of a leader in society is determined by the functions that he is called upon to perform. Among the most important functions N. Machiavelli singled out the maintenance of public order and stability in society; integration of heterogeneous interests and mobilization of the population for the solution of generally significant tasks. In general, N. Machiavelli's theory of leadership is built on four provisions (variables): 1) the power of a leader is rooted in the support of his supporters; 2) subordinates must know what they can expect from their leader, and understand what he expects from them; 3) the leader must have the will to survive; 4) the ruler is always a model of wisdom and justice for his supporters.
In the future, researchers of leadership focused special attention on certain components of this multifaceted phenomenon: either on the traits and origins of the leader; or on the social context of his leadership, that is, the social conditions of coming to power and exercising leadership; or on the nature of the relationship between the leader and his supporters; or the results of interaction between the leader and his followers in certain situations. The emphasis in the analysis of leadership on one or another variable led to an ambiguous interpretation of this phenomenon and initiated the emergence of a number of theories that investigated the nature of leadership. Among the most widespread and generally accepted theories of leadership, one can single out trait theory, situational analysis theory, situational personality theory, integrative leadership theory.
V damn theory (K. Beard, E. Bogardus, J. Jennings etc.), a leader is viewed as a set of certain psychological traits, the presence of which contributes to his promotion to a leading position and endows him with the ability to make power decisions in relation to other people.
The theory of traits emerged at the beginning of the 20th century. influenced by the research of the English anthropologist F. Galton, who explained the nature of leadership from the standpoint of heredity. The main idea of this approach is the assertion that if a leader has special qualities that distinguish him from supporters, then these qualities can be distinguished. These qualities are inherited.
Higher officials are perceived as exceptional in the meanings of the dominant political culture and mentality, the population ascribes certain virtues to them. The psychological interpretation of leadership also focuses on the motivation of the leader's behavior. The manifestation of extreme psychologism in understanding the nature of leadership is the concept of psychoanalysis by Z. Freud, who interpreted political leadership as a sphere of manifestation of suppressed libido - an unconscious desire of a sexual nature.
An analysis of the destructive type of political behavior with features of masochism and sadism was given by the American psychologist E. Fromm in his work "Necrophiles and Adolf Hitler". Using the method of psychobiography, E. Fromm traced, starting from early childhood, the process of formation of the destructive political leadership of the leader of Nazi Germany.
However, the isolation of the phenomenon of leadership from the totality of psychological traits of a person or from his motivations and impulses (conscious and unconscious) is not able to answer practical questions related to the characteristics of specific leaders.
The theory tried to overcome the psychological interpretation of leadership situational analysis , according to which the leader appears as a result of the coincidence of circumstances of place, time and others. In the life of the group in different situations separate individuals are distinguished, superior to others in at least one certain quality. And since it is precisely this quality that is demanded by the prevailing conditions, insofar as the person possessing it becomes a leader. Situational leadership theory views the leader as a function of a particular situation, emphasizing the relativity of the leader's traits, and assuming that qualitatively different circumstances may call for qualitatively different leaders.
Attempts to avoid extremes in the interpretation of the phenomenon of leadership (either from the standpoint of the theory of traits, or within the framework of the theory of situational analysis) objectively required expanding the boundaries of the analysis of the factors forming leading positions and determining the content of power influence. These attempts led to the emergence of the personality-situational theory. Her Supporters personality-situational theory (G. Gert and S. Mills) tried to overcome the shortcomings of the above theories. Among the variables of leadership that make it possible to cognize its nature, they identified four factors: 1) traits and motives of a leader as a person; 2) the images of the leader and the motives that exist in the minds of his followers, prompting to follow him; 3) characteristics of the leader's role; 4) the legal and institutional conditions of its activities.
American political scientist Margaret J. Hermann expanded the number of variables that allow, in her opinion, to deeper reveal the essence of leadership, including: 1) the main political convictions of the leader; 2) the political style of the leader; 3) the motives that the leader is guided by; 4) the leader's reaction to pressure and stress; 5) the circumstances due to which the leader first found himself in the position of a leader; 6) the previous political experience of the leader; 7) the political climate in which the leader began his political career.
Thus, from one-sided psychologism in the analysis of leadership, political science has moved on to a more holistic study of this phenomenon using sociological approaches.
The sociological interpretation of the nature of leadership focuses more on the analysis of the interaction between the leader and his followers. It allows you to identify the technology of effective leadership, to understand the logic of the leader's political behavior.
Within the framework of the ingetrative approach, motivational concepts of leadership and theories have recently dominated, focusing on the specifics of political styles. The latter direction makes it possible to reveal the predictability of the actions of a political leader and their possible effectiveness.
Despite the differences in the interpretation of leadership, in the understanding of its nature, it is viewed as a constant, priority influence of the individual on the society or group. This influence depends on a number of variables: on the psychological traits of the personality, on the nature of the relationship between the leader and his supporters, on the motivation of leadership behavior and the behavior of his supporters.
3) Typology of leaders and their functions. The manifestations of leadership are quite diverse. Attempts to classify and typologize them are prompted by the desire to predict the likely behavior of leaders based on certain characteristics.
The typology of leadership based on taking into account the personal qualities of a leader and the specific situation in which he performs his functions was proposed by the German sociologist M. Weber in his work “Charismatic domination”. As a classification criterion, he put forward the concept of "authority", which he defines as "the likelihood that orders will be obeyed by a certain group of people." The ability to give orders and wait for them to be carried out rests on a variety of power resources. Accordingly, M. Weber identified three types of domination - traditional, rational-legal, charismatic.
Traditional Leadership relies on customs and traditions, the power of habit, which are rooted in the distant past. The habit of obeying is based on the belief in the sacredness of the tradition of passing on power by inheritance: the leader acquires the right to dominate due to his origin. This is the type of authority that was once enjoyed by the leader of the tribe, the head of the clan, the monarch.
Charismatic leadership based on belief in the chosenness of God, in the exceptional qualities of a given person. Charismatic power, noted M. Weber, "is characterized by the personal devotion of subjects to a person and their faith only in his personality, which is distinguished by outstanding qualities, heroism or other distinctive properties that turn him into a leader." Charismatic leadership is inherent in transitional societies carrying out modernization, so charismatic domination can create conditions for either traditional power (for example, for a return to the institution of monarchy), or for rational-legal power. The peculiarity of charismatic power is that it is devoid of any objective grounds (for example, it does not rely on law, tradition), but exists due exclusively to the personal qualities of a charismatic leader, faith in him.
Rational and legal leadership personifies bureaucracy. The power of authority is recognized by virtue of "legality", by virtue of belief in the lawfulness legal status and “competence” based on rationally established laws. Power is based on a single set of legal norms accepted by the whole society. The competence of each holder of power is determined by the constitution and legal norms.
One of the most modern and widespread typologies of leaders is the M. Hermann system, which classifies leaders on the basis of their image. M. Hermann identifies four images of leaders based on four variables: the nature of the leader; the properties of his supporters; ways of communication between the leader and his supporters; specific situation in which leadership is exercised.
The first collective image of a leader is standard-bearer leader . He is distinguished by his own view of reality, the presence of an image of the desired future and knowledge of the means of achieving it. Such a leader determines the nature of what is happening, the pace and methods of transformation. The leader-standard-bearers include M. Gandhi, V.I. Lenin, Martin L. King and others.
The second collective image of the leader - servant leader... He achieves recognition through the expression of the interests of his followers. The leader acts on their behalf; he is the agent of the group. In practice, a minister-leader is guided by what is expected of him, what his voters believe in and what his voters need (LI Brezhneva, KU Chernenko).
The third image is leader-dealer... Its essential feature is its ability to convince. He achieves recognition from his supporters by knowing their needs, by the desire to satisfy them. Through the ability to persuade, the sales leader engages the adherents in the implementation of his plans. R. Reagan can be considered an example of this type of leader.
The fourth image is firefighter leader... He is distinguished by a quick reaction to the urgent demands of the times, formulated by his supporters. He is able to act effectively in extreme conditions, make decisions quickly, and adequately respond to the situation. Most leaders in modern societies can be attributed to this type.
The allocation of four collective images of leaders is rather arbitrary, since such types are rare in their pure form. Most often, the leadership of one person at various stages of his political career combines certain properties of each of the listed ideal types.
Lately, the classifications of leaders according to their style of behavior have dominated. Five political styles can be distinguished according to the degree of dominance of certain qualities: paranoid, demonstrative, compulsive, depressive and schizoid although there are leaders in history who combine several styles.
Paranoid political style. It corresponds to the type of leader, which can be designated by the term "master". Such a person is characterized by suspicion, distrust of others, hypersensitivity to hidden threats and motives, a constant thirst for power, control over other people. His behavior and actions are often unpredictable. A politician of a paranoid style does not accept any point of view other than his own, rejects any information that does not confirm his theory, attitudes and beliefs (I.V. Stalin, Ivan the Terrible).
Demonstrative political style characteristic of the type of leader who can be called an "artist" because he always "plays to the audience." He is distinguished by his love of demonstrations, he is seized with a passionate desire to please, to constantly attract attention to himself. In many ways, his behavior, political actions depend on whether others like him, whether he is loved by the crowd or not. As a result, he is sufficiently "manageable", predictable, may lose vigilance, having heard enough flatterers. However, he may lose his self-control when faced with criticism addressed to him (A.F. Kerensky, L.D. Trotsky, V.V. Zhirinovsky).
Compulsive political style usually typical for a leader, the collective image of which can be designated by the term "excellent student". He has an almost obsessive desire to do everything in the best possible way, regardless of the possibilities. His style of behavior is characterized by tension, lack of lightness, flexibility, and maneuver. He is constantly worried, petty, too punctual, dogmatically approaches all instructions and rules, which often causes conflicts in power structures. The "excellent student" feels especially uncomfortable in extreme conditions, when it is necessary to make quick decisions and use non-standard methods. (L.I.Brezhnev).
Depressive political style personifies "ally". A leader of this type is incapable of playing a leading role and therefore tries to unite with those who can actually "make politics." The “Companion” often idealizes individuals and political movements, while he himself lags behind events. He does not have a clear political course, sustainable approaches to solving emerging problems. He accepts political reality warily and pessimistically, revealing weakness and political lack of will (Nicholas II).
Schizoid political style closely related to the depressive. He is represented by a lone leader. Self-isolation and self-removal from participation in specific events are more distinct. The "loner" does not want to join any particular movement and prefers the position of an outside observer. But in this case, there is practically no political responsibility. The schizoid style of behavior is historically transient, less independent and ineffective. The “loner” leader, as he participates in political life and expands his powers, transforms his style, supplementing it with features of a paranoid and demonstrative style. Such a change in the political style was characteristic of the political biography of V.I. Lenin (before the revolution of 1917 - a "loner", and after her the features of "master" and "artist" were added).
The indicated political styles, highlighted as “ideal”, are rather rare, they appear as tendencies. They are conditioned by the mentality and culture of society, including stable ideas about the desired model of society and the role of the leader in it, about the preferred ways of solving emerging problems. Political styles differ markedly due to the non-identity of national cultures different countries... The type of dominant culture also determines the nature of political orientations inherent in leaders.
4) political leadership (policy implementation) in private affairs;
5) political principles, beliefs, opinions or sympathies of an individual (female or other politics);
6) the general set of interacting and usually conflicting relationships between people living in society; the relationship between leaders and non-leaders in any social organism (political community, church, club or trade union);
7) political science.
Noah Webster
In the mass consciousness, politics is usually identified with the management of a process. For example, when it comes to "economic policy" or "education policy", it means that the problems accumulated in the economy or education require attention and control from the state. Such attention is expressed in the formation of development tasks and the determination of the means by which the tasks can be solved, based on the capabilities of the state. Another meaning of the term "politics" in everyday consciousness is associated with the characteristics of the active human principle: the ability to consciously set goals and determine the means of achieving them, as well as the ability to measure costs and results. In this case, politics is identified with the concept of "strategy".
In the political science dictionary under politics means a special kind of activity associated with the participation of social groups, political parties, movements, individuals in the affairs of society and the state.
The core of political activity is activities related to the implementation, retention, opposition to power. Political activity covers several areas: public administration, the impact of political parties and movements on the course of social processes, political decision-making, political participation. The political sphere is closely related to others public spheres... Any phenomenon: both economic, social and cultural, can be politically tinged, associated with the impact on power.
Political activity- there is activity in the sphere of political, power relations. Political relations- this is the relationship between the subjects of the political system on the issues of conquest, implementation, retention of power. In theory and in practice, political activity is often associated with coercion and violence. The legitimacy of the use of violence is often determined by the extreme, harshness of the political process. As a result of political activity, interaction of institutions of the political system, implementation of political decisions and attitudes, the political process is formed and develops.
Political activity can be active and passive, spontaneous and purposeful, an important part of political activity is political leadership, which includes the following links:
Development and substantiation of the goals and objectives of society, social group
Determination of methods, forms, means, resources of political activity
Selection and placement of personnel
POLICY STRUCTURE
Directions of state activity to satisfy aggregate public interests can be called policy directions... There is an internal policy - that is, one that is focused on resolving domestic tasks - maintaining order, ensuring the development of the country, and the well-being of its citizens. Foreign policy includes the resolution of interstate contradictions, its task is to defend the interests of the state in the world arena. Allocated in the modern world and international politics... It is not simple government activities rather - supranational. The United Nations Organization, the Council of Europe and other similar organizations will take part in it.
We can also talk about various types of politics in relation to spheres of public life that need to be regulated by the state. (This issue is discussed in more detail in the paragraph "Functions of the state"). You can talk about politics in the field of culture, science, the fight against organized crime. Politics is an integral activity aimed at exercising power, at achieving society's goals and objectives, ensuring a higher standard of living, social harmony and stable development than before.
Exercise: Give examples of the implementation of domestic and foreign policy of the state, using knowledge of history
Political system- a set of various political institutions, socio-political communities, forms of interactions and relationships between them.
Functions of the political system:
Determination of goals, objectives and ways of development of society;
Organization of the company's activities;
Distribution of spiritual and material resources;
Coordination of different political interests;
Promotion of various norms of behavior;
Stability and safety of society;
Involvement of people in political life;
Monitoring the implementation of decisions and compliance with norms.
The main elements of the political system:
a) Institutional subsystem - political organizations: parties and socio-political movements (trade unions, religious and cooperative organizations, interest clubs), the state is allocated in a special structure.
b) Communicative subsystem - a set of relations and forms of interaction between classes, social groups, nations and individuals.
c) Normative subsystem - norms and traditions that determine and regulate the political life of society: legal norms (constitutions and laws refer to written norms), ethical and moral norms (unwritten ideas about good and evil, truth and justice).
d) Cultural and ideological subsystem - a set of political ideas, views, perceptions and feelings that are different in their content; 2 levels - theoretical (political ideology: views, slogans, ideas, concepts, theories) and practical (political psychology: feelings, emotions, moods, prejudices, traditions).
Classification of political systems
a) Depending on the source of power and domination in the power-society-person relationship: democratic and non-democratic (authoritarian and totalitarian).
b) Open (competitive) - closed (purpose).
c) Military - civil - theocratic.
d) Dictatorial (reliance on violence) - liberal (freedom of the individual and society).
Democratic systems are built on the principles of individualism, humanity (man is the main value), responsibility, equality, social justice, initiative, sovereignty of the people, plurality of opinions, tolerance, freedom, the presumption of innocence, criticality, gradual transformation; and undemocratic - on the basis of collectivism, caste, political passivity, a system of subordination, indoctrination of citizens, state guardianship, the use of any means to achieve goals, utopianism (blind faith in certain ideals), radicalism, violence.
Exercise: illustrate the types of political systems based on historical examples
Depending on the source of power, one can talk about open and closed political systems. Open systems are characterized by free competition, the availability of opportunities for everyone to realize their desire to participate in political life. Moreover, this openness should extend to all spheres of life - when filling any position, a competition is announced and the most qualified specialist is selected according to previously known criteria. On the contrary, in closed systems everything is decided on the basis of acquaintances, family ties, bribes, and personal preferences. Professionalism in this case fades into the background, and if competitions are held for positions, then this is done formally with results known in advance. Thus, we can talk about two types of government. At first, the government can be got rid of without bloodshed, primarily through elections. In this case, the transfer of power from one group to another is not accompanied by a complete destruction of political institutions and social traditions. The second type assumes that the government can leave only in the event of a coup, a successful uprising, conspiracy, civil war, etc.
The rest are very close to the considered classifications. So some divide all political systems into military, civil and theocratic. In this case, the main criterion is the dominant position in the state of one of the three groups with significant authority and power. In the modern world, most countries have civilian power, but there are still states dominated by the military (primarily in Africa and South America) or religious leaders (Asian and some African countries). There is also a division into dictatorial (reliance on violence) and liberal (protection of personal freedom) systems.
The most important task of political science as a science is to study the functioning of the political system and its constituent institutions.
Questions:
1. Give a definition of the concepts: politics, political system, political activity, political relations, political leader
2. What does political activity include? Give examples of political activity.
3. What is a political system? What are the elements of a political system?
4. What bases of classification of political systems do you know? Explain using historical examples.
Tasks:
1. Work with text:
German sociologist Max Weber(1864-1920): politics “has an extremely broad meaning and encompasses all self-directed activities. They talk about the monetary policy of banks, the discount policy of the Imperial Bank, the policy of the trade union during the strike; we can talk about the school policy of the urban and rural community, about the policy of managing a corporation, and finally, even about the policy of an intelligent wife who seeks to rule her husband. " “Politics ... means the desire to participate in power or to influence the distribution of power, whether it be between states, whether within the state between the groups of people that it includes ... Whoever engages in politics strives for power: either to power as a means subordinate to other goals (ideal or egoistic), or to power "for its own sake" in order to enjoy the sense of prestige that it gives ”.
Questions:
- Based on the proposed text, define the main meaning of the concept of "politics".
- What political subjects are named in the text? Give examples of their political activities.
2. Insertmissing words in text fragments:
Fragment 1. _________________ is also "the activities of the bodies of __________, associations of citizens and individuals aimed at defending their interests and associated with the aspiration to ___________, its possession and implementation ", and" participation in the affairs of the state. "
Fragment 2. ___________ politician - one who managed to keep his _____________, combining them with the interests of others, who managed to gain __________ over the situation, over himself, over others.
Fragment 3. _________________ (translated from Latin means "legality") - means recognition of the right to manage and consent to obey ________________; the ability of the authorities to form a belief in the optimality and fairness of existing political institutions for a given society.
3. Continue saying:
Politics is an art, because ___________________________________
Politics is science because ___________________________________
Politics is akin to business, because _____________________________
Politics is like sports when ________________________________
4. Working with quotes: Choose one quote from the suggested ones. Express your attitude to the position of the author. Justify based on historical examples.
A) "The rules of morality and virtue are holier than all others and serve as the basis for true politics" ()
B) "Politics should be a science and art, always resting on a certain philosophy and morality, on a certain philosophical and moral understanding of all life, both personal and public" (E. Benes)
C) "Politics is a relentless choice of two evils" (D. Morley)
D) "Everything that is moral evil is evil in politics" ()
E) "The way to ennoble politics is in strengthening its compliance with the provisions of religion" (Thomas Aquinas)
F) "The art of politics is the art of doing so that everyone benefits from being virtuous" (K. Helvetius)
G) “In politics, for the sake of a certain goal, you can conclude an alliance even with the devil himself - you just need to be sure that you will draw the devil, and not devil you” (K. Marx)
5. Prepare a detailed answer on the topic “ Political Consciousness and Political Behavior". Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs
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Institute for the adoption of political and management decisions at various levels in government bodies is a key node in management critical areas public life. Moreover, politics in the proper sense of the word cannot be imagined without mechanisms for preparing, making and implementing decisions. The policy itself is, to one degree or another, the result of decision-making mechanisms and processes.
Essence and main components of a political decision
The nature and content of political and administrative decisions taken by the authorities indicate the goals, mechanisms and means of implementation. government controlled... With the help of the institution of making and implementing decisions from everyday life to those vital for a given society, interaction between the governed and the managers, the reproduction of the political system itself, as well as control over different kinds resources at the disposal of society and the state. Political decisions play an irreplaceable role as a tool for preventing or resolving various kinds of internal and external conflicts.
A political decision is a collective or individual process of defining the tasks of public authorities. It can be argued that political activity at any level and at any scale begins with a decision. And because of how thoughtful, reasonable and consistent with the real state of affairs this decision is, success or failure depends, as well as the reputation and authority of this or that politician, political institutions and organizations, the political regime itself.
All the variety of decisions, depending on their significance and status, can be divided into strategic decisions taken by the country's top political leadership, various administrative and administrative bodies of the central and regional levels, bodies local government, as well as the higher and lower bodies of political parties and public organizations, etc. Decisions can be divided into political and administrative, vital for the whole society, concerning certain categories of the population, any particular regions, certain spheres of public life and etc.
A critical role in the development and adoption of long-term and strategic decisions, which determine the main directions and priorities of the country's socio-economic and political development, belongs to the country's top political leadership, the highest bodies of state power in the person of the legislative assembly, the head of state and his staff, the government and the judiciary. It is about the political management of the affairs of the whole society. In this context, the state is called upon to ensure the functioning and development of the main spheres of people's life, to create and maintain the infrastructure on which all the life of society, including the economic system, is based.
These are decisions of national importance, binding on all bodies and links of the state apparatus and citizens without exception. The most important function of the state in this context is to ensure the integrity and unity of institutions and bodies that perform various functions of government.
Here, the political priorities facing the state are of decisive importance. Political priorities mean specially highlighted attitudes and guidelines, which are given primary importance and which are put at the forefront in the development of the main directions of the socio-economic, technological and cultural development of the country. It is on the basis of them that the strategic interests of the state in the international arena are determined. Decisions made in various state and administrative structures must fully comply with the general strategic line of the state.
Political decision is one of the most important tools for managing society, and in this regard, it must meet the interests of the whole society and become a real embodiment of the key principle of politics as the art of the possible. Among the many political decisions taken in the state, one can single out various kinds of laws, decrees, decrees, orders of executive bodies, the results of popular votes in parliamentary, presidential and other elections, etc.
In political science, the transition from one type of political system to another is designated by the terms "political development" or "political modernization." Modernization is conditioned by objective (socio-economic and cultural) and subjective (the ability of political leadership to effectively change the political system) factors. Political modernization is a part of social modernization, when transformations take place in all the main spheres of the social system: economy, social sphere, culture, education. etc. The choice of a modernization option begins in the sphere of politics - with the manifestation of political will for change. Consistently carried out political modernization serves as a factor guarantor of ensuring the consistency of modernization in other spheres of public life. The goals of modernization are aimed at achieving such social values as economic growth, equality, democracy, stability, prosperity, justice, order.
The following goals of political modernization are distinguished:
- the creation of new political institutions to address the constantly expanding range of social and economic problems;
- changing the political orientations of the elite and leaders towards open fight;
- the formation of a rational bureaucracy.
The main directions of modernization in the modern world:
- processes of industrialization and informatization of society;
- the formation of an ecological society, the introduction of environmentally friendly technologies; - the democratization of society, increased participation of the population in the management of public affairs, the responsibility of the authorities to society; - the orientation of the social sphere towards increasing the welfare of the bulk of the population, overcoming the social gap between members of society; - ensuring the availability of education and its high quality, which guarantees the possibility of active activity and success in a new, changing system social relations;
- expanding the sphere of human freedom, increasing the possibility of choice and independence from the pressure of traditions, environment, place of residence.
Two historical types of modernization are distinguished. The first type, the so-called original modernization, is characteristic of the United States and Western Europe, which made the transition to a rational social structure as a result of long-term natural internal development. The second type - secondary modernization - was characteristic of countries that were lagging behind in their development and tried to catch up with the leading ones at an accelerated pace by using the experience of developed countries. This group includes developing countries that have freed themselves from colonial dependence (countries of South America, Southeast Asia),
a 3 Currently, there are many international organizations in the world that resolve issues in all areas of the sphere of human life; both economic and political. The most acute problems today are the problems of war and peace, disarmament and the resolution of military conflicts. The concern of states for their security led to the creation of military-political organizations. One of which was the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). NATO was created on April 4, 1949. NATO countries decided to unite their efforts for collective defense, preservation of peace and security.
The main goal of NATO is to ensure the freedom and security of all members by political and military means in accordance with the principles of the United Nations. NATO is committed to ensuring lasting peace in Europe and maintaining strategic balance throughout Europe. NATO members are committed to resolving all international disputes by peaceful means so as not to jeopardize international security. According to the NATO structure, an armed attack on one of the NATO members is considered an attack on all countries of the North Atlantic Treaty. These are the main provisions of the NATO charter. Like any international organization NATO has its own structure.
The block's governing bodies are the North Atlantic Council, the Defense Planning Committee, the Nuclear Planning Group, other committees, and the Secretary General. NATO's military structure consists of military committees, a standing military committee and an international military headquarters. NATO headquarters is located in Brussels. Currently, NATO includes 16 states: the USA, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Portugal, Luxembourg, Canada, Italy, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, Greece, Turkey, Spain, Germany. But Iceland does not have its own military forces and is not part of the NATO military structure, it only has observer status in the Defense Planning Committee. France in 1966 also withdrew from the NATO military structure.
21. Political activity as the basis of the political life of society. The political process consists of actions. Political action is defined as the intervention of an individual or group in the power relations of a given system in order to adapt it to their interests, ideals and values. The activities of social groups or individuals are associated with the desire to improve or change the socio-economic and political order. Political actions orient the political system towards achieving certain goals that express the interests of various groups. These interests are clothed in a theoretical, ideological form. From what ideology the participants in the political process adhere to, whether their activities are aimed at revolutionary changes in society or at reforming it. Political action is always performed "here" and "now", that is, in a specific situation. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the objective state of affairs, specific conditions, before starting to act. It is necessary to identify the specifics of each situation in order to choose the right methods and means of political action. The toolkit with the help of which the situation is assessed is also important. It is reasonable to change our schemes and dogmas if they do not fit political reality, for it is always richer than any schemes. Persons acting in politics must have a solid store of knowledge and be competent. In addition, they must creatively apply their knowledge in a given situation. Theory in politics makes sense when it can give an adequate answer to a specific problem. In any political system, there are certain norms, rules of the game, which participants in the political process must observe. As a rule, these norms are violated by those who want to change the political system through violence. However, in the event of the conquest of power, they establish their own norms of action, their own rules of the game. So, it differs positive political action , which is to do something to achieve a specific goal, and negative , which is "to stop doing something." The abstinence attitude is not neutral, as it always has certain consequences. Political action can be characterized as rational and irrational . Rational action means that his agent has a clear idea of the goals, knows the methods adequate to these goals, is able to effectively apply them, setting a system of priorities, and is also able to change the strategy if it does not lead to the desired results. As for an irrational political action, it usually ends in failure due to the inability of politicians to link ends and means, a blind attitude to reality, which is considered in accordance with their dogmas and schemes. This is the soil of political illusions, which often lead to dire consequences for society. Political action can be viewed as inertial and creative . Inertial actions reproduce the accepted norms of behavior, the existing political system, preserve it. Creative actions bring changes, new moments, dynamics into politics. Political action can be spontaneous or organized ... As a rule, the actions of the elites are more organized, which gives them the opportunity to maintain their dominance, develop strategies and tactics, and implement their plans. However, in any political action there may be a share of spontaneity, chance, inconsistency. Types of political action depend on the type of social transformations, on the attitude of political forces to reality. Revolution, rebellion, uprising, counter-revolution, peasant war have the maximum radius of action. Revolution represents the overthrow of the dominant groups, the transformation of society as a whole. Counterrevolution Is a political movement led by groups ousted from power, their representatives, those who have broken with the revolution. Riot- the result of the indignation of the masses by the actions of local authorities, growing into disorder, pogroms. Reforms lead to social change without undermining the foundations of the existing system and the power of the ruling class. Political coups lead to changes in the sphere of power, primarily personal, through the use of physical violence. Examples of specific political actions are rallies, demonstrations, strikes, meetings, picketing, processions, etc. Special types of political action are elections and election campaigns, referendums, official visits of state and party delegations to other countries, diplomatic negotiations.
22. In political science, the term "political participation" used to refer to the forms of political behavior of citizens. Political participation is considered as the involvement of members of a given community on an individual, class-group, national-ethnic, religious or other basis in the process of political-power relations. People's participation in politics is one of the means of expressing and pursuing their interests. Political participation makes it possible to reveal the real role of the citizen, individual strata, groups, classes, both at the local level and in the political system of society. If citizens take an active part in the formation of the elite, in defining the main goals of politics, monitoring its implementation, then such a political system can be considered based on participation. Political participation comes in two main forms: straight(direct) and mediated(representative). Direct participation takes place within small political communities where the masses at meetings decide by majority vote. It is typical for local government and self-government exercised by citizens through local Councils of Deputies, bodies of territorial public self-government, local referendums, meetings and other forms of direct participation in state and public affairs. At indirect participation the masses elect their representatives to exercise political power. The larger the society, the less opportunities for self-government. Indirect participation provides more opportunities for distorting the will of the masses, since elected representatives, deputies can pursue their own interests, which do not coincide with the interests of those whom they represent. The masses can lose control over their representatives, and the degree of their political participation decreases. One of the most developed schemes of political participation include the following elements:
Reaction (positive or negative) to impulses emanating from the political system, not associated with the need to participate in any actions; - participation in the delegation of powers (elections). This is electoral behavior; - participation in the activities of political and other organizations; - performance of political functions within the framework of state and other political institutions (including in parties, etc.). This function is carried out by professional politicians, officials, deputies, leaders and functionaries of parties; - direct actions (participation in meetings, demonstrations, etc.).
The types of participation are highly unequal. Some of them occupy a modest place in political life, while others are highly developed, which makes it possible to judge the political culture of a particular society. Political participation can be directed against the actions and decisions of the authorities, expressing protest, indignation, rejection of a given political line. Political protest- This is a type of negative reaction of an individual (group) to the current political situation in society or a specific action of certain state bodies and political opponents. The forms of political protest include such actions as political and civil disobedience, petitions, boycotts, damage to property, sabotage, murder, kidnapping, terror, partisan actions, revolutions, wars. The level of political participation is influenced by such social factors as education, socio-economic status, age, gender, place of residence, profession, access to political information, socio-economic situation.
