Management is a special activity that makes a disorganized crowd into a focused, efficient and productive team. It also acts as a catalyst for significant change. The practice of management has existed since ancient times, for which there is evidence (construction Egyptian pyramids, political organizations in Rome and Macedonia), so we can conclude that the history of management thought is deeply rooted in the past.
Until the 19th century, no one thought about management as a separate science and its consistency, everyone was interested in money and power. It was only at the beginning of the century that Robert Owen began to deal with the achievement of enterprise goals with the help of workers. He improved their working conditions, provided them with good housing, stimulated additional payment for quality work performed, thereby developing material incentives. These innovative ideas were a unique breakthrough in human consciousness and leadership. Thus, the history of management thought took one step forward.
At that time, the history of management thought had several approaches that significantly influenced its further development in theory and practice. The approaches of the various schools of management contained four different aspects: in terms of human relationships and behavioral science, the administrative approach, and quantitative methods.
Realizing the influence of external forces on the activities of organizations, researchers have developed other approaches. The history of management thought, moving forward, finds its reflection
at first in which he considers it as an interconnected series of management functions. Then he draws the attention of managers to the fact that an organization is a set of interrelated elements (people, tasks, technologies, etc.) that move towards different goals and are subject to changing environmental conditions. And which focuses on the fact that management methods should be determined based on the situation.
At the present time, the development of management thought has reached clear trends, strategies and strength. Management is a process and product of the environment, and the concept of management has shifted its attention to the human factor, organizational and methodological ways of resolving issues.
Conditions for the emergence of management
The emergence of management is closely related to the general progress of science and technology. Its formation and improvement was determined by practical need in new methods of labor organization.
Refurbishment of the factory management system at the end of the 19th century. was due to several reasons. The replacement of living labor with machines, the introduction of new technology, which sharply increases labor productivity, led to difficulties in the sale of products. In addition, it began to be required from engineers who manage production not only knowledge of technology and technology, but also the ability to calculate costs, revenues, profits, as well as find a common language with subordinates and bear the entire burden of responsibility for their work.
Another important reason for the emergence of a scientific approach to management is the low level of general technical and technological culture at enterprises and the use of low-skilled foreign work force... Until the beginning of the XX century. the work of managing engineers in most cases was based on experience and intuition. Engineers who wanted to add elements of science to management were treated with distrust. Respect could rather be earned by the engineer who, for example, was able to draw on the sand the contours of the part or node he needed.
Lack of comprehensive knowledge affected production results. Decisions to use new types of equipment were often made without a clear vision of the future of the organization. At first they built (purchased), put it into operation, and then looked at why it still didn't work. And this attitude was not only among the craftsmen or technicians, often engineers with higher education approached their work the same way. The contingencies in which they found themselves more and more forced to think about the rational use of the means and tools of production, the development of the most expedient methods of work and about new system management.
The use of the word "management" (the Russian synonym for "management") in practice when discussing issues of practical management is attributed to G. Towne, who gained fame as a businessman, president and director of a number of US companies. The emergence of the concept of "management" and the beginning of its systematic use are associated with the activities of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers The American Sosiety of Mechanical Engineers (AS ME) and, in particular, with the meeting of the society in 1886, at which the president of the company Yale and Towne Manufakturing G. Town made a report "The Engineer in the Role of an Economist".
In 1986, in the USA, on the initiative of the Academy of Management, the centenary of the scientific direction "management" was celebrated. The report "Labor Management" noted that in the management of large industrial production With the introduction of new machines and mechanisms, it is increasingly required to develop such methods of remuneration that would be of interest to entrepreneurs and at the same time contribute to the intensification of production. However, in most cases, in practice, workers' wages are completely dependent on the will of the entrepreneur. In particular, with piecework wages, the approximate time required to complete a particular job was determined based on the speed at which it was completed by experienced workers. More often than not, the average worker, even with intensive work, could not get Furthermore that he was paid on a per-hour basis. Capital sought to strengthen the methods of labor intensification, but this path did not bring success. Reasonable calculations of the amount of profit allocated for payments to workers, and the system of workers' participation in the distribution of the organization's profits did not work out.
When specialization and automation of production have increased, in the activities of the manager there is more and more specific gravity began to occupy problems of effective coordination of work various specialists. Note that it was precisely the desire to improve efficiency that was the main factor that provoked the development of F. Taylor's theory of the scientific organization of labor, according to which, if labor is organized more efficiently, then along with an increase in wages labor costs can be reduced.
Note that at that time the term "efficiency" was interpreted as "getting more in return for less, or at least the same." Today this concept has many interpretations, here is the most common: efficiency - maximizing product output while minimizing production costs.
We add that later it is for solving problems effective coordination of work Various experts G. Gantt and the Gilbrett couple devoted themselves to researching the effectiveness of management, and new areas of cost and profit control at all stages of production and product promotion became the objects of close attention of the next generations of management researchers. The name of another most talented person - H. Emerson, whose ideas differed in a peculiar view of link between efficiency and structure of the organization.
Back in those years, it was noted that small businesses scattered throughout the country can compete with large organizations. It would seem that a large company can purchase large quantities of goods, receive discounts and savings from operations on a large scale, and thereby increase the efficiency of its activities. But research by H. Emerson showed that in large organizations (especially in some industries) often occurs effect of diminishing returns to scale. The reason for this effect is the lack of consistency in information flows and decisions with a cumbersome organizational structure. Thus, the efficiency of activities achieved due to the size of the organization, an increase in the scale and growth of production volumes, has boundaries and does not increase starting from certain indicators. Many large companies in practice, they felt the effect of diminishing returns to scale and came to unpopular decisions to reduce the number of jobs and the size of the organization.
X. Emerson saw the solution to the problem of decreasing efficiency in improving the organization of management, and, above all, in its organizational structure. Note that organizational structure, as a certain relationship of units and links, has always been under the close scrutiny of researchers. However, the role of each subdivision and the effectiveness of their interconnection were mainly worked out in practice. The most common were linear, functional and staff organizational structures.
Linear distribution structure job duties- when each employee is maximally focused on performing the production tasks of the organization. All powers go from the highest level of management to the lowest. Among the advantages of a linear structure - responsibility, established obligations, a clear distribution of responsibilities and authorities, etc. Among the disadvantages - inflexibility, rigidity, inability to further growth of the organization.
Functional structure is the most common, in this case line management is supported by special support services. Currently, linear functional structures are widespread.
From an analytical point of view in staff the structure can be divided into two "control layers". The first of these layers (the highest and second levels of organization) centralize planning and resource allocation, take strategic decisions, manage conflicts between structure members. The second layer of management covers the levels of management starting from the third and down to the lower levels of the hierarchy (workplaces).
Emerson noted that such a combination of linear and staff forms is possible, which, due to the organization, will increase the efficiency of the organization's activities. Such a combination should become the basis in the development of the functions of headquarters and the relationship between line and staff managers. At the same time, the authority of managers, proven by practice, should be corrected. For example, a line manager is not authorized to start work separately from staff workers. However, even with this method, the weak link was the coordination of all components of management.
The size of an organization is not the only factor affecting its performance. In many critical situations, human factor".
Deep specialization of production and management has brought enormous advantages in personal and social aspects: workers have the opportunity to achieve a high level of qualifications; the speed and quality of work has increased; the time required to acquire a profession has been reduced; labor saving innovations were stimulated. But at the same time, the employee often does not realize the meaning of achieving common goals.
Classical management theory has helped create a set of modern tools for developing management skills in the workplace and educational programs in all areas of professional development of the manager.
- Towne Henry (1844-1924) - F. Taylor's predecessor, became famous as a businessman, president and director of a number of US companies. Since 1870, he began to introduce new management methods at his factories under the slogan "factory management is no less important than technology."
world economy and finance
1.2. The evolution of management thought: from macro-management to micro-management, management
Macro-Governance - Statecontrol,
Micro-management - corporation management,
an enterprise, an organization.
Until the XIX-XX centuries. management thought in
mostly developed and improved
as macro control.
Names and written monuments by which one can judge the evolution of public administration:
The book "The Teaching of Ptahhotep" (Ancient Egypt, XX century BC),Solomon (Israel, 10th century BC),
Confucius (China, VI-V centuries BC),
Treatise "Arthashastra" by Kautilya (Ancient India, VI-III centuries BC),
Code of Laws of Hammurabi (Ancient Babylon, XVIII century BC),
Nebuchadonossor II (Ancient Babylon, 605-562 BC),
Socrates (Ancient Greece, (469-399 BC),
Plato (427-347 BC),
Xenophon (430-354 BC)
Diocletian (Roman Empire, 243-316),
Niccolo Machivelli (Italy, 1469-1527),
Peter I (Russia, 1672-1725),
Ivan Tikhonovich Pososhkov (Russia, 1652-1726),
Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky (Russia, 1772-1839),
Adam Smith (Great Britain, 1723-1790),
Robert Owen (Scotland, 1771-1858),
Sergei Yulievich Witte (Russia, 1849-1915),
Max Weber (Germany, 1864-1920). Parallel to comprehension
state administration went
development of management practice
military, religious,
construction, economic
processes. The first management issues were
to solve the ancient Egyptians.
They understood the need
purposeful organization of people,
planning, monitoring results.
It was related to construction
pyramids where labor was used
many people. Babylonian king Hammurabi (1792
-1750 BC) created a code of laws
government, developed
own leadership style,
established legal norms
determining the minimum wage
boards. Assyrian king Nebuchadnezzar II
(604-562 BC) developed and successfully
used the control system on
textile factories and
granaries. Her instrument was
colored labels that were used to mark
daily receipts of a batch of raw materials. This
allowed to define and control
the terms of their stay in production or for
warehouse. An invaluable source for studying management life in
Ancient Palestine is the Bible, which reflected in
the mythological form of the life history of the ancient Jews and others
the peoples of Palestine (about the 15th century BC). Of particular importance
The Bible's coverage of management ideas is not limited to
the presentation of thoughts on management, formed on
relatively small Israeli-Jewish territories.
The Bible advocated clear organization and hierarchy
governing the country. The highest level in this scheme should have been
constitute the supreme power, it defines the main
requirements for the king in charge
country.
First, the king had to represent the indigenous population
country.
Secondly, the inadmissibility of the king's self-interest was noted,
using his power for personal gain.
Thirdly, high moral standards were presented to the tsar.
requirements. In government, the Bible especially valued wisdom,
thoughtfulness and validity.
Protecting the interests of the people, the Bible strongly condemned
abuse of power and fought against the use of
managerial truths for personal enrichment, developed
the idea of incompatibility of management with taking bribes,
illegal gifts, bribery, embezzlement.
Putting God in the center of everything and believing that all power
from God, the Bible is more emphatic than many ancient sources
demanded the unquestioning obedience of the controlled
manager, sought the authority of the authorities, managerial
discipline, strict fulfillment by subordinates of the will,
instructions, prescriptions of those who have power, who rule,
who makes decisions and directs the actions of people. Chinese scholar San Tsu in his
the work "The Art of War" (500 BC)
BC) showed the need
the hierarchical structure of the organization,
workforce planning, organization
interpersonal relationships. Important for the history of economic thought was
the ancient Chinese teachings of Confucius (Kun Fu-Tzu) (551–479 BC)
BC BC). Confucius believed that labor increases wealth and
the people, and the sovereign, is supported by the peasant community and
patriarchal family.
Regulation of patriarchal family relations -
the basis for the stability of the social order. Power must
take care of the even distribution of wealth,
regulation of agricultural work, restriction
taxes and moral improvement of people. Ethical
the norms proclaimed by Confucius contributed to
strengthening the patriarchal family and clan of relatives, and together
with that and the social system of China. Ancient greek philosopher
Socrates (469-399 BC) gives
understanding management as
special sphere of human
activities. He
having analyzed the responsibilities
a good industrialist,
merchant, warlord,
showed that in fact they
are the same.
The main challenge is
to put the right
person to the right place and
get him to do
their instructions.
So Socrates
formulated the idea of
universal character
management. Plato (424-347 BC)
is the creator of the model
ideal state. In dialogues
"State" and "Laws" he
seeks to eliminate class struggles and
inequality of wealth by
clear division of public
functions of citizens in accordance with their
abilities: philosophers and warriors
form the administrative apparatus,
landowners, artisans and
merchants are busy in the economy, slaves
doing hard work. Private
property is frowned upon, everyone
belongs to the state, every
personal property exceeding
specified minimum state
takes away. Freedom of citizens sharply
limited, the laws are harsh. Family -
under the control of the state, which
determines marriages and childbirth.
In fact, Plato created the model
primitive state
communism. This is one of the first
utopias. Ancient Greek philosopher Plato
(427-347 BC) for the first time in history
expressed scientific ideas about separation
labor. He noted that a person does not
it's worth working at the same time
stone, and iron, and wood, because.
he doesn't have to succeed everywhere
opportunities. Aristotle (384-322 BC) -
the greatest thinker of antiquity,
trying to investigate
economic laws of modern
him to Greece. In "Politics" and
"Nicomachean ethics" he considered
state structure, determining
family as its foundation.
The essence of the state is the desire to
the common good. It should
overcome class
opposites, navigate
on the "average" citizen, ie.
farmer-slave owner. He
defended the interests of natural
slave economy.
The phenomena associated with it were considered
natural and attributed them to
economy, i.e. art
acquisition of goods, consumer
values. Slavery was considered
natural even outstanding
philosophers like Aristotle,
and the slave is a speaking instrument. When considering management views
ancient thinkers first of all need
pay attention to the difference between antique
economy from the Asian.
If Asian society was domineering
(oppressive), then antique was
democratic, albeit slave-owning. V
the ancient economy is much more important,
than in the Asian, had private property and
commodity-money relations. In ancient times, many thinkers
tried to answer the question: what
motivates people, makes them active? Late Middle Ages
presented exclusively
interesting works by Niccolo
Machiavelli (1469-1527), his
major works - "Sovereign",
"Discourse on Titus Livia". In them
the author analyzes the style
leadership, relationship
leaders and subordinates.
N. Machiavelli's worldview
formed under conditions
feudal fragmentation
Italy, the main reason for which
he considered absence to be strong
centralized power.
Therefore, the main
concept of theory
government
became strong
unlimited power,
based on
absolute submission.
For many years she was not accepted and
criticized. However, in the XX century. to the reflections of N. Machiavelli, a new
increased interest, his work was in demand, including
including management specialists. His works have become
regarded as sources of ideas that constituted the original
practical management system.
There are five principles of Machiavelli, which
influenced the development of management:
1) the authority, or power of the leader, is rooted in
support of supporters;
2) subordinates must know what they can expect
from their leader, and understand what he expects from them;
3) the leader must have the will to survive;
4) a leader is always a model of wisdom and justice
for their supporters;
5) the principle of the unity of power. Italian political
Niccolo Machiavelli's thinker
his book "Reasoning" (1513)
defended the principle of the unity of power:
“Better to trust the expedition alone
a person of ordinary abilities than
two people, even if they have
outstanding qualities and
equivalent abilities. " Machiavelli's contribution to history, theory and practice
management is huge. He was one of the first to substantiate
concept civil society and used the term
"State" in its modern sense - for
designation of the political organization of society. V
to some extent Machiavelli is
the founder of theories of power and leadership, and
See also decision theory.
Theorists cite Machiavelli's authority
bureaucracy (M. Weber, R. Michels), corruption
(A. Bonadeo), political leadership and prestige
authorities (S. Huntington), "post-industrial society" and
political forecasting (D. Bell, G. Kahn, E. Wiener),
on his ideas, many scientific
directions (sociology, political science, elite and
pl. etc.).
Undoubtedly, the figure of Machiavelli occupies an important
place in the history of management thought. In the XV-XVII centuries. profound changes have taken place in Europe. They were associated with
a revolution in public consciousness and the initial accumulation of capital,
compiled the prehistory of capitalism.
Criticism of feudalism was directed primarily against the Catholic
churches. Reformation theorists (Martin Luther, John Calvin) used ideas
early Christianity to justify bourgeois entrepreneurship.
The Reformation formed an economic ethics different from ethics
Catholic Christianity.
What are these new norms of human behavior and the nature of the relationship between them?
These are honesty, moderation, frugality, prudence; perform well
their work and due to this to get rich, expenses should never exceed income;
money should always be in circulation and generate income; avoid questionable
transactions and unjustified risk, basing the case on sober calculation.
A new type of business person is being formed -
active, adventurous, thrifty,
prudent in choosing partners, but bold and
willing to take reasonable risks.
The ideology of the Reformation contributed to the formation
Protestantism, which largely predetermined the foundations
modern capitalism and scientific management USA and
Western Europe. Mercantilism is one of the first scientific
economic worldviews, the main
whose representatives were considered William Stafford
(1554-1612), Thomas Man (1571-1641), Antoine de
Montchretien (1575-1621).
Mercantilism is an economic policy,
aimed at creating strong
centralized states that should
provide national trading capital
favorable conditions for its development due to
inflow of money from abroad.
The ideology of mercantilism: the essence of wealth
express precious metals; labor is productive
only in those industries that work on
export; the state should encourage exports,
provide monopolies to domestic merchants and
prevent competition; population growth is necessary
for supporting low level wages and
high rate of return. Englishman Thomas Hobbes (in 1651) and his
compatriot James Stewart (in
1767) proved that the main motive
human behavior is
just in the pursuit of power. Another Englishman Jeremiah
Bentham in his book "An Introduction to the Principles
morality and legislation "considered
that a person's motives are
benefit and satisfaction. Great English economist Adam
Smith, in his study of
the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples "
(1776) formulated the idea
"Economic man", the main
whose goal is to strive for
enrichment and satisfaction of personal
needs. Further research
the question raised in the Middle Ages
showed that only for enrichment
about 12% of people strive, and fame
- almost 40%. So, in parallel with comprehending
government was developing
military, religious,
construction, economic processes.
However, as a harmonious system of knowledge and
management skills began to take shape only
in the 19th century, and the final formation of science
happened in the twentieth century during the isolation
managers (managers) into an independent
social stratum and becoming
ruling class. Practical
experiments in the field of management.
They helped define:
performance and remuneration rates;
optimal speed of equipment operation;
production volumes;
improve the organization
production and labor. English entrepreneur Richard
Arkwright (1780), inventor
spinning machine, suggested ideas
coordination of the work of machines and personnel,
planning equipment placement,
discipline (introduction
penalties). One of the first authors
scientific management can
recognize a great humanist
and the reformer Robert
Owen (1771-1856).
English scientist and
manager of several
textile factories
Robert Owen in Address
to the managers
manufactories "(1813)
put forward the idea that
leaders should
pay the same attention
"Living mechanisms"
(to employees) how much
"Inanimate machines". In 1800-1828. Owen has successfully conducted a major
social experiment to provide workers
comfortable housing, improvement of working conditions, life and
recreation, creation of a chain of stores for employees,
who traded in essential goods for
affordable prices.
It was not just a charity, but it brought
economic effect - increased productivity
labor. Owen is the first in the world to apply methods in a factory
moral incentives.
By tying work belts of different colors to the machines:
red - to the best workers, green - fulfilling the norm,
yellow - lagging behind, he achieved without raising wages
payment without introducing technical improvements and not
resorting to threats that the norms were exceeded
almost all employees (on almost all machines
there were red ribbons). Owen's experiments on
practice worked out the idea of social
a partnership that has become widespread
to be introduced in the West after one and a half
centuries.
But she was ahead of her time
so much so that it was rejected
society of the beginning of the XIX century. and betrayed
oblivion. American Eli Whitney, famous
as the inventor of the cotton gin
machines and conveyors (1820) on
practice implemented my idea
standardization, quality control and
substantiated the control rate. An important step in development
theory and practice of management
made the inventor first
computing machine
Charles Babbage (1792-1871).
In the book "On saving
materials and equipment "
(1828) he formulated
separation concept
physical and mental
labor, compiled a list
positive aspects
specializations, studied costs
working hours for various
operations developed
premium payment system
labor. Ch. Babbage became a significant figure in
management much earlier than Frederick
Taylor. Being mostly technical
oriented manager, like all of his
contemporaries, C. Babbage created and applied
a number of technological innovations that helped
human effort. Thanks to this, he took
a worthy place in the history of research
operations and management science. He developed and
applied a scientific approach to management
much earlier than the era of scientific management in
America.
C. Babbage's scientific products
phenomenal. He demonstrated the first in
the world's automatic calculator, its
The "differentiating machine" in 1822 -
predecessor of digital computing
cars. In the concept of a computer by C. Babbage
all the basic elements of modern
models. He had a stock or a device
memory, arithmetic unit, external
memory keeper and conditional converters.
C. Babbage created game programs for
their computer, which have become
predecessors of modern gaming
business methods. Ch. Babbage's computer is not
became a commercial reality. Over a hundred years
C. Babbage's concept of the computer remained
unclaimed, waiting for the development of electronic
technologies.
Differentiating
C. Babbage's car Andrew Ure (1778-1851) -
English chemist and economist
- in the book "Philosophy
factories "(1835) substantiated
idea of mechanization
production, opened
Benefits
interchangeability of parts and
economies of scale
production.
He showed for the first time that in
growth environment of large
industry happens
further deepening
division of labor, dismemberment
production process on
components,
giving rise to the application
science in production.
1.2. Western historical schools and approaches of scientific management in the twentieth century.
Scientific schools:1. Rationalist school (school of scientific
management) - 1885-1920.
2. Administrative (classical) school -1900
-1950
3. School of Human Relations - 1930-1950.
4. Behavioral concepts - 1950-1988. APPROACHES
Process
(second decade of XX
century)
Systemic
(mid-twentieth century)
Quantitative
(1950s)
Situational
(60s of the twentieth century)
Content of the approach
The founder of the direction is A. Fayol. According to the approach,
management is presented as a continuous
process or cycle. Its foundation is
main functions: planning, organization,
motivation and control.
Treats the organization as an open system,
interacting with the external environment. Internal
the environment contains the elements of the subsystem: departments,
technologies, management levels, etc.
Associated with the development of the exact sciences. Computers,
achievements in mathematics, physics became active
used in management. Construction
virtual models for resource allocation,
inventory management, service, strategic
planning, etc.
Proponents of the approach recommend choosing
management methods taking into account the situation and factors
Wednesday. More efficient is the method that corresponds to
the prevailing circumstances.
The main factors influencing the formation and development of scientific schools of management of the twentieth century.
Dominantfactors of the first half
Twentieth century
Orientation of scientific
schools
Separation of management from
property
Growth of large organizations
Development of the human sciences
Development of exact sciences
Market approval
relationship
Patterns and
principles of construction
organization
Division of labor,
functions and responsibilities Dominant Factors II
half of the twentieth century - early
Orientation of scientific schools
Revolutionary changes in
technologies
Complexity and knowledge intensity
products
Globalization of production and
markets
Information Technology
Diversity of consumer
demand
Growing uncertainty in development and
risky investments
Systematic approach to management
Organizational capacity and
the culture
Behaviorism
Marketing
Reengineering
Domestic market concept
Theory of institutions and
institutional change
Alliance theory
Priority of social goals and
development
I. Rationalist school (school of scientific management)
1885-1920 School representatives:F. Taylor, F. Gilbert, G. Gant, G. Emirson. American engineer,
founder of scientific
labor organization
F. Taylor (1856 - 1915)
considered the founder
scientific management.
Their views in this
the area he outlined in
books "Management
enterprise "(1903) and
"The principles of scientific
management "(1911). Scientific management developed by him in
four areas:
rationing of labor;
the role of managers;
selection and training of personnel;
reward and incentives. F. Taylor created a rigorous scientific system
management labor process which received
spread in many countries until the 1970s.
The elements of this system were:
rational organization of production
process;
organization of timing of time spent on
manufacturing operations (Taylor conducted dozens of
thousands of experiments);
calculation of production rates;
differentiated payment system;
tight control;
maximum specialization;
close interaction of managers and workers. Taylor's views were overkill
technocratic and provoked protests
from workers and entrepreneurs. He and his followers (G. Gant,
F. Gilbert, G. Emirson) are considered
representatives of the rational
schools of scientific management, the basis
which made a functional
approach to an organization that
was seen as something consisting
from independent elements
(absent A complex approach To
organizations). So, G. Gant considered not only
separate operations, but also labor
the whole process. He thought
the human factor is the main
driving force of production and
argued that the main focus
it is necessary to pay the training of employees with
in order to reduce the time spent
labor. F. Gilbert studied labor operations,
using a camera and microchronometer. He
described 17 basic hand movements and
revealed unnecessary operations for this or
other production process
(for example, for laying bricks it was
recommended 4 movements instead of the previous ones
18, which increased by 50%
labor productivity of bricklayers). It is curious that the use of their
methods Gilbert sought in everyday life. He
found that for fastening
buttons on the vest from top to bottom is wasted
7 sec., And from the bottom to the top - only 3 sec.
Using two razors at the same time,
he cut his shaving time by 44 seconds, but
lost 2 minutes, applying bandages on
cuts. Garrington Emerson (1853-1931) by
specialty was a mechanical engineer, an entrepreneur.
Emerson contributed immensely to
management development. He believed that
with proper management
labor productivity can
achieve the highest results
at the lowest cost.
Tense and hard work maybe
help achieve good results
only in abnormal conditions
labor. Emerson stated that
labor productivity and
tension is completely different
concepts. If an employee is stressed
works, it means that it
makes the maximum possible
efforts. And to work
productively, you need to apply
the smallest effort. AND
the goal of management is precisely
minimizing effort and maximizing
results. In his book 12 Principles
productivity "(1913) G. Emerson
revealed the basic postulates, using
which can be greatly improved
labor efficiency.
This work is known all over the world.
However, while studying it, you must remember
that G. Emerson worked on his work in
another era, with a completely different
social and economic level
development of society.
G.Emirson's principles of management efficiency
G. Emerson identified 12 basic principles of productivity:1) Clearly set goals.
When working in a team and doing any kind of work, it is necessary that
each person had precisely set goals and objectives. This will help
make the work well-coordinated and avoid various problems and disruptions in work.
2) Common sense.
The manager is obliged to exclude any emotions from his work, he must
study and analyze the production process only from the standpoint of a sound
meaning. This will help to draw the right conclusions and develop
prospects for further action.
3) Competent consultation.
We need efficient and competent advice on all issues that have arisen.
in the production and management process. The only one really
the competent opinion is the collegial opinion.
4) Discipline and order.
All participants in the production process must comply with the order and
adhere to established rules.
5) Fair treatment of staff.
Any manager must treat his employees fairly,
not to single out anyone, but also not to oppress anyone. 6) Accounting.
This principle allows the manager to receive all the necessary and
the most complete information about your employees and the process
production, which allows you to quickly make decisions.
7) Dispatching.
Thanks to this principle, the leader is able to clearly and quickly manage
and coordinate the work of the entire workforce.
8) Norms and schedules.
Applying this principle, you can highlight all the disadvantages of production
process and minimize all the damage caused by these deficiencies.
9) Normalization of working conditions.
For the employee, such working conditions must be created at the enterprise, with
which the result from his activities will be maximum.
10) Rationing of operations.
Using this principle, the required amount of time is established
for each operation, as well as the sequence of their execution.
11) Written standard instructions.
In production, certain
instructions and rules regarding the order of performance of various works.
12) Reward for performance.
Within the framework of this principle, it is established that each employee needs
reward for a job well done, then the productivity of his work
will grow steadily. Currently, the principles
increase the productivity of G.
Emerson has been very successful
in industrial and production
enterprises. These principles are already a lot
years used by leading
leaders to improve
the efficiency of workers. Limitation
rationalist school
(aimed at studying
production part) was
overcome by representatives
classical direction.
II. Administrative (classical) school
1900-1950. School representatives(A. Faille, L. Urvik, G. Ford, P. Drucker,
M. Weber, A. K. Gastev, P. M. Kerzhentsev and
etc.).
The limitations of Taylorism were
overcome by representatives
classical direction. A. Fayol was the manager during
40 years of major mining
by Colombo, which
headed during the financial collapse,
and left at the time when she
held a leading position in the world. The first article by A. Fayol, dedicated to
theory of administration, published in
1900, and the book "General Industrial
administration "in 1916. The object of his
interests became the organization as a whole and
management processes. He believed that any enterprise is engaged in:
1) production;
2) commerce (purchase of the necessary
production and marketing of products);
3) finances (attracting, maintaining and
use of funds);
4) accounting (static observations, inventory,
drawing up a balance sheet);
5) insurance (life, person and property
people);
6) administration (influencing
subordinates).
Management functions
Every direction needsgovernance, which includes
planning processes, organizations,
coordination, control, motivation. Each of these parties, according to A. Faille,
needed to be managed in accordance with
following 14 principles.
1. Division of labor (to increase the volume and
improving the quality of production);
2. Power is responsibility (“Power is
power to give orders and force to compel
obey ... Power is inconceivable without
responsibility, i.e. without sanction - reward or punishment,
accompanying her actions ... wherever she acts
power, responsibility also arises ... ”;
3. Discipline (this is obedience, diligence, manner
keep yourself, outward signs respect; her
the level depends entirely on the leader); 4. Unity of management (“An employee may
give orders only to one boss ... ");
5. Unity of leadership (i.e. one leader and
one program for a set of operations,
pursuing the same goal);
6. Subordination of private interests to general interests (interests
employees should not be prioritized
enterprises, however, due to their difference
the head needs to agree on them);
7. Remuneration of personnel (payment of the executed
work should be fair and, if possible
satisfy both the employer and employees);
8. Centralization (the manager needs to find
organization-most favorable degree
centralization; 9. Hierarchy (i.e. a number of leadership positions, starting with the lowest and
ending with the highest;
10. Order (the well-known formula of the material order:
a certain place for each thing and each thing in its own
location; the social order formula is similar: a certain
a place for each person and each person in its place);
11. Justice (according to Fayol, this combination
benevolence with justice);
12. The constancy of the staff ("Staff turnover
is both a cause and a consequence of a bad condition
cases. Nevertheless, changes in the composition are inevitable: age, illness,
death violates the composition of social education ... Principle
staff turnover has its own measure ...);
13. Initiative (i.e. the ability to create and implement
plan);
14. Unity of staff. (“There is no need to separate the staff ...
Dividing hostile forces in order to weaken them is a matter
skillful; but sharing your own forces at the enterprise is hard
error); Follower of A. Fayol
was his student Lindal
Urvik (1891-1983) -
English scientist,
organizer of ideas as
administrative and
the whole classical school
management.
In 1946 he published a book
"Basics
administration ", where
put forward the principle of common
goals for all subjects
activities that
is the basis of their
cooperation.
The principles of building a formal organization L. Urvik
1. Compliance of people with the structure. First you need to detaildevelop a structure, and only then "for it" select specialists, in
the most appropriate structure.
2. Creation of a special “general staff”. Headquarters is developing
recommendations for the manager. "General" headquarters is preparing
orders of the head and their transfer to subordinates, control of the current
work and assisting the manager in coordinating activities
headquarters specialists. The headquarters relieves the head of the little things
administrative activities, giving him the opportunity to carry out
control over a wider range and focus on the most important
affairs.
3. Comparability of rights and responsibilities. Since the responsibility
transferred to the head, he must be transferred proportional to this
power.
4. Range of control. There are a certain number of persons directly
subordinate to the leader. This is the number of persons who effectively
can be managed by a supervisor. The control rate was determined by Urvik in
number of 5-6 people. Moreover, it was especially emphasized that the norm in each
the specific case depends on the individual qualities of the leader.
5. Specialization. There are three types of specialization in the organization
managerial staff: on the basis of the goal; operations; type of consumer, or
geographic location.
6. Certainty. Rights, duties, responsibilities, relationships and
relationships should be defined in writing within the organization for each
positions. Henry Ford (1863-1947)
American
industrialist, owner
factories for the production
cars around the world,
car king
the beginning of the twentieth century, was before
all by the inventor and
practitioner who created
unique
production system,
based on moving
conveyor.
Author of 161 US patents. His
slogan - "car for
all "; the Ford plant produced
the cheapest
cars at the beginning of the era
automotive industry.
To manage this system, Ford suggested:
implementation of standardization in the production process;vertical leadership
unification of a number of enterprises from one center;
instructing and supervising personnel;
high wages (in 1914, Ford introduced
the highest wages in the industry);
limitation working week 48 hours. (in 1918 Ford
established an 8-hour working day and mandatory
parameters of the working environment -
cleanliness, comfort and hygiene);
fostering a culture of labor relations among workers,
self-respect and respect for others;
widespread introduction of scientific knowledge (Ford opened the first
vocational schools and schools with scholarships for
diligent and successful students); M. Weber (1864-1929) -
German sociologist, philosopher,
historian, political
economist. Weber's ideas
had a significant impact
to develop public
sciences, especially sociology.
In the field of business and
management M. Weber
received the greatest
renown for its
bureaucratic research.
Dedicated his main
work "Theory of society and
economic organization "
(1920) the problem of leadership and
bureaucratic structure
authorities. Bureaucracy (from French bureau - bureau,
office and Greek. κράτος - domination,
power) - the direction that takes
public administration in countries where
all matters are concentrated in the hands of the organs
central government authority,
acting as directed by (superiors) and
through a prescription (to subordinates); also under
bureaucracy means a class of persons, sharply
separated from the rest of society and
composed of these representatives
central government Bureaucracy is an organizational form characteristic
for one of the three Weberian types of power:
rational legal power is based on legality
the rules put in place;
traditional power - on the sanctity of ancient traditions;
charismatic power is based on belief
followers that their leader possesses unique
qualities.
The definitions of these types of power can also be used when
analysis of the activities of managers as commercial
enterprises and other organizations. Since all three types
authorities are ideal, then any leader
can obtain the authority they stipulate on the basis of
legitimizing any combination of these types. This system was characterized by a clear division of labor, a clearly defined hierarchy,
the availability of detailed rules and instructions and job responsibilities. M. Weber admitted that
such an "ideal bureaucracy" does not exist in reality and that it is rather a
selective model of the real world. The scientist put it as the basis of his theory about work and about how
how work can be done in large teams. This theory defined the structural model
for many modern large organizations. Features of an ideal bureaucratic
M. Weber's structures are as follows:
1. Division of labor. Work tasks are broken down into simple, routine and well-defined
tasks.
2. The hierarchy of power. Departments and positions are organized into a hierarchical structure in which
the work of each employee in the lowest position is controlled and monitored
superior employee
3. Formal selection. All members of the organization should be selected based on their qualifications,
which level is determined by exam or according to their experience and training
4. Formal rules and procedures. To ensure uniformity and regulate actions
employees, managers must strictly adhere to formal organizational rules.
5. Impartiality. Rules must be followed and controls applied to all
employees equally, without any personal preference
6. Career orientation. Managers are the official officials, but not
the owners of the business units they manage. They get a fixed
salaries and moving up the career ladder within their organization. P. Drucker in the book "Practice
management "(1954) determined
the exclusive role of the manager in
organization, comparing it with
conductor of the orchestra. “Just as a conductor must hear the whole
the orchestra, the manager should monitor the overall
activities of the enterprise and for the market
conjuncture. He needs to constantly review
the enterprise as a whole, but not to lose out of
view of individual trees, since in certain
conditions, private issues acquire a decisive
meaning. But the conductor has the score in front of him,
written by a composer; the manager
is both a composer and
conductor ". The manager's role is not highly appreciated
prevented Drucker from coming up with an idea
self-government of the labor collective, in
according to which workers and employees
should elect a special body,
dealing with social
problems. However, society this idea in those
times was rejected, but now
time she is one of the foundations
social partnership. An important scientific result of the activity
classics - approach to management
organization as a continuous
process. If a rationalistic
schools in the first place were
technical aspects of labor, then have
organizational classics.
III. The School of Human Relations (1930-1950) and its Development (1950-1988)
School representatives: E. Mayo,M. Follett, R. Likert, A. Maslow and others). During the First World War
intensification of the use of physical
human capabilities in a large machine
production has been pushed to the limit.
Further enhancement of performance
labor on this basis is no longer
possible. There was a need for
activation of other human resources
personality. The growth of production automation,
at which physical costs
decline, demanded a raise
mental and psychological costs. Mental activity
managing is much more difficult than
physical. Research in this
the area was handled by a well-known
Elton Mayo. In the 30s of the twentieth century, the Hotthorn
experiments carried out on the basis
American company Western
electrician ", showed that any
organization is something
more than a simple aggregate
people performing common tasks. She is a challenging social
a system where individuals or
their groups interact on
principles far from formal
prescriptions. For instance:
social person has unique
needs, goals, motives;
rigid hierarchy and subordination not
compatible with human nature;
labor productivity depends not only on
from the methods of organizing production,
how much of how managers treat
to the performers. even high salary far from
always leads to growth
labor productivity, while
how people are very responsive to
favorable moral and psychological climate and in this
work productively even
with the same salary; personal and family problems of the worker
adversely affect
production efficiency;
exchange of information between people
is essential, etc. Mary Follett, the first female doctor in the United States
sociology, also wrote a number of works in the field
human relations. They stated that:
hierarchical division between managers and
subordinates artificially, the government must
rely on excellence in knowledge;
managers should not be manipulated
subordinates (this usually calls
negative feedback), but educate them;
workers should be involved in management
organization;
conflicts play a constructive role in
organizational relations (it is only important that
resolve correctly). School of Human Relations
has stepped forward compared to
classics, but often her main emphasis
was done on a team (relatively
faceless mass of people), and not individual
personality. Therefore, later, in addition
to this school, were formed
behavioral concepts of D. McGregor and A. Maslow. In the second half of the twentieth century. v
management developed and received
widespread such
management approaches like:
process (from the end of the 50s);
systemic (since the mid-70s);
situational (80s).
IV. Process approach
Was proposed by representativesadministrative management who tried
describe the management functions. Control
viewed as a process, as work on
achieving goals with the help of other people.
Management is not seen as a series
disparate actions, but as a single process
impact on the organization. At the same time, the manager
is obliged to perform functions such as planning,
organization, motivation and control, which themselves
are processes. To permanent management
processes include management
staff, maintaining leadership in
team, coordination,
communication, assessment of external and
internal environment of the organization,
making decisions,
entrepreneurship and introduction
negotiations or conclusion of transactions.
V. Systems approach to management
To the emergence systems approach Tomanagement led the relationship and
interdependence of all parties
activities (production,
marketing, financial,
social, environmental, etc.) and
complication of external relations
organizations. According to this approach, changes
in one link of the organization inevitably
causes changes in the rest
links and in the organization as a whole. American explorer
C. Barnard, being for 20 years
by the President of the New York Bell Telephone
company ", based on the system
hike in his works "Functions
administration "(1938) and
"Organization of management" (1948),
put forward the concept of social
corporate responsibility. In accordance with it, the management
must consider the consequences
decisions made and bear for them
responsibility to society and
in front of an individual. Barnard believed that
any organization is hierarchical;
all organizations (except
states and churches) are private;
organizations can be of two types -
formal and informal (aim
which is to maintain sustainability
formal organizations);
management failures are due to underreporting
moral factors. Systematic approach to management
also adhered to D. Forrester,
developed a formal model
organizational system
industrial enterprise,
which includes six main
elements: raw materials, orders, cash
means, equipment, labor
and information. The main complexity of management
such a system, in his opinion,
is the psychological factor: the term
leaders' tenure
small, and for them staging
short-term goals are easier, but
management of complex systems
only based on short term goals
leads to the deterioration of their activities. In 1956 T. Parsons as part of
systematic approach put forward the idea
four principles, the implementation of which
ensures normal development
organizations:
achievements of goals;
adaptation of the organization to external environment;
integration of the organization;
regulation of latent voltages; In the 80s of the XX century, the popular
theory within the framework of a systems approach
became the "7S" concept developed by
E. Athos, R. Pascal, T. Peters and
R. Waterman. "7S" is seven interconnected
variables whose names in English
language begins with the letter S:
strategy (stratege);
structure
management system (sуstem of management);
staff;
employee qualifications (skill);
social relations (sociality);
style of leadership (style). Changes in one variable
affect the condition
the rest, therefore maintaining
balance between them is the main
management task.
VI. A situational approach to management
Its foundations were laid by G. Dennison,claiming that the use of different
management practices due
situation, i.e. specific set
circumstances that are currently
time significantly affects
organization. According to the situational
approach, management is the answer to
the impact of these circumstances on
based on the knowledge and skills of managers
navigate the changing
setting. The situational approach is closely related to
concept of strategic
management, which for the first time
offered a major American
management specialist
I. Ansoff.
2.3. Russian concepts of scientific management of the XX century
Market relations in Russia onthroughout its history there have been
are very poorly developed, and in the period 1930-1990 they were completely absent. However, the need for leadership
human activities exist in
any conditions - be it the market or
command and control system,
and, therefore, we have
certain common points, without
which management cannot do. First steps in management
in our country were made long ago
to Taylor. In the 60s of the XIX century
employees of the Moscow Higher
technical school (now MSTU im.
Bauman) developed their own
methodology for rationalizing labor
relations, which received the "Medal
Prosperity ”at the World Trade
exhibition in Vienna in 1873. Engineer K. Adametsky in 1903 formed 4
basic laws of labor organization:
the law of increasing production, according to which when
increasing up to a certain point in the scale of application
human and material resources unit costs
production decreases, then grows again;
the law of specialization stating that the division of complex labor
increases productivity;
the law of production coordination, according to which
consolidation of small units of production into one group
increases labor efficiency;
the law of labor harmony is the most important one, asserting that
labor costs are least when productivity
each of the cooperating units of production corresponds
performance of others. Later in Russia there were two
main groups of concepts
management.
The largest schools of NOT
formed in Moscow, Leningrad,
Kharkov, Kazan, Taganrog.
I. Group of organizational and technical concepts
1. The concept of organizationalmanagement A.A. Bogdanov (Malinovsky).
Economist and philosopher A.A. Bogdanov
proposed to create a special organizational
science where technical organization would be
determinative in relation to others
(human and ideological). His ideas contained
ideas about the stability of systems, about the reverse
connections in the organization, etc. Bogdanov Alexander
Aleksandrovich (1873 - 1928) Russian scientist encyclopedist, revolutionary
activist, doctor, utopian thinker,
science fiction writer, one of
major ideologues
socialism. Member of the RSDLP in 18961909, Bolshevik, member of the Central Committee since 1905.
Organizer of the group "Forward" and
party schools of the RSDLP in
Bologna and Capri. In 1912 g.
moved away from active political
activities and focused
on the development of their ideas for new
sciences - tectology, and "the science of
public consciousness ";
anticipated some
the provisions of the systems approach and
cybernetics. In 1918-1920 the ideologist of Proletkult. Since 1926
of the year - organizer and director
the world's first Institute
blood transfusion; died,
making experience on ourselves. 2. The concept of physiological optimum
O.A. Yermansky.
Yermansky proposed the principle
physiological optimum as a criterion
rationality of performing any work.
It was based on the attitude of “useful
work / energy costs ". Studying
ratio statistics
leaders and executors, Yermansky
concluded that in the future everyone will become
leaders, and instead of people they will
work machines automata. Osip Arkadievich Yermansky (1866-1941),
member of the Communist Academy, author
which received wide in the 20-30s.
awareness of the concept of "physiological
optimum ".
V. I. Lenin's review of the book by O. A.
Yermansky "Scientific organization of labor and
Taylor's system "(Moscow, 1922):" Mr. O. A.
Yermansky wrote a very useful and very
a good book. " V. I. Lenin positively
evaluated the book itself.
V.I.Lenin carefully got acquainted with
the previous work of O. A. Yermansky
"Taylor's system" (M., 1918), which says
about the founder's enduring interest
of the proletarian state to the work of O.
Yermansky. V. I. Lenin writes: “The book gives
us a detailed presentation of the system
Taylor, moreover, what is especially important, and her
positive and negative
parties, as well as the main scientific
physiological arrival data and
consumption in a human machine "
“In general, the book is quite good, in my
opinion, in order to be recognized
a must-have textbook for everyone
vocational schools and for all schools of the 2nd level
generally. Learning to work is now
the main, really nationwide
the task of the Soviet republic ”.
3. The concept of labor installations and narrow base of Alexei Kapitonovich Gastev.
Alexey KapitonovichGaastev (1882 -1939) Russian revolutionary,
trade unionist,
poet and writer,
scientific theorist
labor organization and
supervisor
Central Institute
labor.
Member of the CPSU (b) since 1931
of the year. A.K. Gastev believed that all the work in
the field of work organization should start with
an individual person, whoever he is -
a leader or an ordinary performer.
His work attitudes concept included
the theory labor movements,
organization of the workplace, methodology
rational vocational training,
which made it possible to reduce the training time by 6
times - from 3-4 years to 4-6 months. He gave a number of important practical, albeit
somewhat naive, recommendations for organizing
production, for example:
“First think over your work thoroughly,
cook the whole the right tool and
devices ";
“Do not work until you are completely tired, do
uniform rest; during work, do not eat, do not
drink, do not smoke - do it during your work breaks ”;
“If there is no work - don’t worry, you have to do
break, calm down and - back to work ”;
“Finished work - clean up every last nail,
a workplace take it out. " Unlike Western experts
Gastev believed that the introduction of scientific
organizations need not only
leading enterprises, but also in
"Any shed", in the very
"Unsettled bearish corner
Russia ". Another direction of creativity
Gasteva has become the concept of a narrow base, the essence
which can be expressed in the words: "Worker
who operates the machine, there is a director
the company that is known by the name
machine tool ". Regularities of management, according to
Gastev's opinion, act in the following
order: calculation - installation - processing -
control - accounting - systematics - calculation. This
he extended the formula to control
both people and things. She formed the basis
new science of "social engineering". 4. Production interpretation of E.F. Razmirovich.
Razmirovich understood control as
a kind of manufacturing process and considered
possible to rationalize, mechanize and
automate its various components by those
the same methods as manufacturing operations. V
light of this approach, the management
viewed as a complex machine whose job
embodied in material objects: orders,
telephone messages, orders, etc.
II. Group of social concepts
1. The theory of organizational activity P.М. Kerzhentseva
Platon MikhailovichKerzhentsev (1881
-1949) - Soviet
state and
public figure,
revolutionary,
economist, journalist.
Founder of the Soviet
time management schools. Under the management organization P.M.
Kerzhentsev understood the definition
the most rational techniques and
methods of performing actions such
how to form organizational
structures, distribution of responsibilities,
planning, accounting, recruiting,
maintaining discipline. The control process is not possible, according to its
opinion, without support from the outside
the broad masses of the working people. They should not
only execute the directives of the manual, but
and be proactive. The principle
management is an "agreement between
higher and lower authority ". The main
the task of the head Kerzhentsev considered
the ability to "put each subordinate on
appropriate place. "
2. Social and labor concept of production management N.А. Vitke
Vitke Nikolay Andreevich Soviet researcher in the fieldlabor organization and management, one of
initiators of the Motov movement in 1920
- 1930
Vitke is a supporter of behavioral
organization of management relations.
I saw management as a way
unleashing creativity
workers. Introduced a number of
important concepts ("the human factor
production "," collective labor
activity "," social. organization
enterprises "," social and psychological atmosphere ",
"organizational crisis").
Ahead of E. Mayo, V. put forward
the concept of "the human factor in
management ", expressing a number of ideas,
underlying American
the concept of human relations (on
large industrial enterprise
requires a professional
managers). The main task of management
ON THE. Vitke saw in
expedient organization
people as participants in a single
labor cooperation
("Management consists of
appropriate combination
human wills "). The essence of the work
administrator ("builder
human relations ")
is to create in
labor collective
favorable social and psychological atmosphere
- "spirit of the hive"). ON THE. Vitke formulated the main
requirements for managers: skill
select the right staff, clearly
distribute responsibilities, schedule
goals, coordinate work,
exercise control, but also
“Don't fancy yourself a technical know-it-all
and do not spray yourself into "small
little things ". 3. The concept of the administrative capacity of Fedor Romanovich
Dunaevsky.
One of the original scientific schools of that time was
Kharkiv School of Management.
Management control, collegiality and
one-man management, improvement of the organizational structure,
psychology of authoritarian leadership and management styles
was engaged in the All-Ukrainian Institute of Labor (Kharkov),
whose director was a major specialist in methodology
making managerial decisions Dunaevsky F.R. Under the administrative capacity
F.R. Dunaevsky understood the ability
managing simultaneously
lead a certain number
subordinates regardless of their
personal qualities that in modern
management language is accepted
call it "controllability rate". He researched this concept and suggested
ways to expand administrative capacity
using a technique without fasting
bureaucratization.
V last years as a result of scientific
research in Russia is being formed
the concept of the economic mechanism as
unity of organizational, economic and
social control systems.
For the first time in domestic and foreign educational literature, the process of genesis, formation and development of the centuries-old world history management thought. The textbook presents both the origins of management thought dating back to the fifth millennium BC and the latest concepts and paradigms of management at the beginning of the XXI century. It presents not only the history of management science, but also the history of management ideas, views, theories that arose in order to solve real management problems.
For students, teachers and researchers specializing in the management of public, public and private organizations.
At all times, the management of organizations was a complex process that combined elements of science and art. Today, this process has become even more complicated, primarily due to abrupt, often unpredictable changes taking place both in the organizations themselves and in the external environment. Growth in the volume of knowledge about the behavior of an individual in organizations and social processes, the temporal and spatial extent of business processes, the constant expansion of the information field and opportunities information technologies in the management of organizations, the multivariance of management decisions and the objective remoteness of their results - all these factors characterize the modern business environment. On the one hand, they expand the possibilities in the areas of activity of organizations, and on the other, they emphasize the need to increase the scientific validity of the choice and assess the consequences and aftereffects of decisions made. Thus, despite the slogan "Management is dead", the role of the scientific component in the management of the organization is still very significant. The epigraph to this chapter emphasizes the importance of minimizing errors in management decisions made today, which is largely ensured by their scientific justification.
This circumstance, in turn, requires both the further development of the methodological foundations of the science of management and the solution of fundamental problems of the science of management proper. These include, for example, the still controversial issue of the subject of science, a number of categories and concepts of science; the problem of the relationship between management science and other sciences; problems of methods of organizing complex scientific research, the relationship between art and science in management; measurement problem in the management of socio-economic objects. Even a cursory analysis scientific works and textbooks on management allows you to make sure that there are different interpretations of the category "subject of management science", definitions of the terms "management", "management", "organization", "management system", "management functions", "organizational structure", "management mechanism" , "Leadership", "organizational culture", " strategic management"," Organizational behavior "," organizational development "," change management "," management efficiency ".
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD 9
Chapter 1. PROBLEMS OF HISTORICAL AND MANAGEMENT RESEARCH 17
1.1. Management Science System 17
1.2. Research problems of the history of sciences 26
1.3. Specific problems of the history of management thought 36
1.4. The main currents of management thought from the 4th millennium BC by XX in 45
Test questions 63
References 64
Part I. GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT OF FOREIGN MANAGEMENT THOUGHT FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE END OF THE XIX CENTURY
Chapter 2. SOURCES OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT (4th millennium BC, 5th century) 70
2.1. The origins and sources of management thought 70
2.2. Ideas of management in the writings of thinkers of Ancient Egypt and Western Asia 86
2.3. Developing Management Problems in Ancient China 94
2.4. Views on Public Administration in Ancient India 125
2.5. Development of management problems in ancient states (Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome) 143
2.6. Managerial Thought in the Old Testament and New Testament 163
Test questions 169
References 170
Chapter 3. MANAGEMENT THOUGHT IN THE EPOCH OF FEUDALISM, GENESIS AND FORMATION OF CAPITALISM (V-XIX centuries) 172
3.1. The origins and sources of management thought in the V-XVII centuries. 172
3.2. Managerial thought in Byzantium
3.3. Managerial thought in feudal Western Europe and England (V-XVI centuries)
3.4. The origins and sources of IUM in the 18th-19th centuries
3.5. Entrepreneurship Ideas in Western Europe
3.6. Classics of Political Economy on Management (XVIII-XIX centuries)
3.7. R. Owen and social responsibility of business
3.8. Ch. Babbage on specialization and division of physical and mental labor
3.9. E. Yur on the substitution of capital for labor
3.10. "The Doctrine of Management" by L. von Stein.
Control questions
Bibliography
Part II. MANAGEMENT THOUGHT IN RUSSIA (IX-XIX CENTURIES)
Chapter 4. THE GENERATION AND FORMATION OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT IN RUSSIA (IX-XVIII centuries) 252
4.1. Sources and origins of IUM in Russia 252
4.2. "Russian Truth" 271
4.3. Ideas for organizing local government in the Moscow centralized state 275
4.4. On the methods of managing private households in "Domostroy" 281
4.5. The most important factors in the development of management thought in Russia in the 17th century. 285
4.6. Y. Krizhanich 290
4.7. A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin 303
4.8. Reforms of Peter I as a stage in the development of management thought 311
4.9. I.T. Pososkov 315
4.10. M.V. Lomonosov 324
4.11. Catherine II, other Russian emperors and Russian entrepreneurship 327
Control questions
Bibliography
Chapter 5. MANAGEMENT THOUGHT IN RUSSIA XIX century.
5.1. The main directions of IUM in Russia in the XIX century. 342
5.2. Characteristics and achievements of the noble management thought 345
5.3. Administrative ideas of revolutionary democrats and populists 362
5.4. Discussion of production management issues at trade and industrial congresses 390
5.5. Management Courses at Russian Universities 400
5.6. Contribution of Russian statesmen to the development of management ideas 424
Control questions
Bibliography
Part III. NEW AND NEWEST HISTORY OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT
Chapter 6. WESTERN MANAGEMENT SCHOOLS XX century. 436
6.1. F. Taylor School of Science Management 439
6.2. Organization and principles of effectiveness of H. Emerson 449
6.3. A. Fayol Administrative School 454
6.4. School of Human Relations 461
6.5. The Empirical School, or Management Science 470
6.6. School of Social Systems 480
6.7. New School of Management Science 511
6.8. A situational approach to management 521
Control questions
Bibliography
Chapter 7. DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF GOVERNANCE IN THE USSR 534
7.1. Formation of Soviet management thought in the 20s of the XX century. 534
7.2. Soviet managerial thought in the 30-50s of XX in 562
7.3. G.Kh. Popov on the development of Soviet management thought in the 1960s 571
7.4. Development of management problems in the 70-90s 620
Test questions 632
References 633
Chapter 8. MODERN MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS 637
8.1. Motivation - as content and as a process 637
8.2. Leadership Concepts: From Leadership to Learning 651
8.3. Instrumental Control Concepts 681
8.4. Organizational culture: measurement and control 694
Security questions 720
Bibliography
ANNEX 1.
The list of areas of research, course topics and theses and scientific abstracts-reports on IUM 724
APPENDIX 2.
Description of the development process and decision-making on the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions 727
In the classic concepts of "scientific management" by F. Taylor and "rational bureaucracy" by M. Weber, management was traditionally viewed as the impact of one system on another for purposeful change of the latter. A similar approach, later called technocratic, was observed in the works of Russian scientists at the beginning of the 20th century. (A. Gasteva, E. Rozmirovich, P. Kerzhentseva), who assumed that the control mechanism would reduce all control functions to the simplest actions: "the system of managing people will be replaced by a system for managing things." As with foreign scientists, in Russia for a long time the idea of an optimal management model was associated with subject-object relations. In this case, the object was considered everything that obeys the controlling influence, and the subject - that which carries out such an influence. The object and subject of management, according to this model, form a system social management, and the links between them represent the structure of the management system. The specificity of the subject of control is determined by its influence directed at the object, and consists in the coordination and harmonization of the interests of individual communities in the process of their vital activity. However, according to the observations of researchers, the inability of the subject of control to act in the interests of the object often led to the fact that the latter began to function for its own interests, which became an end in itself; at the same time, society turned into a means of their realization. In the development of the theory and practice of social management, several historical periods are distinguished, corresponding to the so-called managerial revolutions. The first management revolution was associated with the emergence of the power of the priests and the birth of writing as a result business communication... The second revolution is associated with the name of the Babylonian king Hammurabi and is an example of a secular aristocratic style of government. The third revolution dates back to the reign of Nebuchadnezzar 2 and is a combination of state planning methods of regulation with production activities... The fourth revolution is associated with the birth of capitalism and the beginning of industrial progress European civilization... Here, for the first time, they started talking about the importance and necessity of management functions. During this period, A. Smith made a great contribution to the development of public administration. He made an analysis of various forms of division of labor, gave a description of the duties of the sovereign and the state. Same way big influence R. Owen contributed to this science. He paid much attention to the humanization of production management and recognized the need for training, as well as the need to improve working and living conditions for workers. C. Bebbiju developed a project for an "analytical machine", with the help of which even then management decisions accepted more quickly. The first studies in the field of management were carried out by the classical school. Representatives this direction mainly concerned with the issue of production efficiency. They focused their activities on the adaptation of workers to work. The first who began to consider management as a science was F. Teyler. He led the scientific management movement and was interested not in the effectiveness of a person, but in the activities of an organization. The main merit of F. Teyler was that he "... developed the methodological foundations of labor rationing, standardized work operations, introduced into practice scientific approaches to the selection, placement and stimulation of workers' labor." Scientists F. and L. Gilberts "conducted research in the field of labor movements, improved timing techniques, and also developed scientific principles for organizing the workplace." One of the varieties of the classical school is the administrative school. It explored issues related to the role and function of governance. It was assumed that if you determine the essence of the manager's work, then you can identify the most effective methods manuals. A. Fayol was one of the first to develop this idea. He identified 5 main functions in the management process: planning, organization, selection and placement of personnel, leadership (motivation) and control.
The representative of the administrative school, M. Bloomfield, developed the concept of workforce management. Another representative of this school, M. Weber, proposed the concept of rational bureaucracy. The main feature of the classical school was the idea that there was only one way to achieve production efficiency. Therefore, their goal was to find this perfect method. A clear advance in management was made by the School of Human Relations. It was based on the achievements of psychology and sociology. This school paid special attention to the person. E. Mayo is considered the founder of this school. He found that a group of workers is a social system that has its own systems of control. In a certain way, acting on this system, you can improve the results of labor. Scientists - behaviorists made a great contribution to the development of the school of human relations. Among the latter, A. Maslow, who developed the hierarchical theory of needs, and D. McGregor, who developed the theory of the characteristics of workers, can be distinguished. Later, a quantitative school or management school appeared. The emergence of this school is associated with the use of mathematics and computers in management. Its representatives express the management process mathematically. And finally, the fifth management revolution is associated with the arrival of a new management force - professional managers. Management “... is associated with efficiency management influences in the social sphere and their reverse impact on market structures, economics, finance, management personnel, etc. ”. In Russia, the beginning of the development of management science was laid in the 17th century within the framework of the theory of public administration. An important role in this was played by A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin. Further, new transformations in Russian management theory are associated with Peter's reforms to improve economic management. At the beginning of the 19th century, M.M. Speransky played a special role in the development of management. He proposed to divide the system of power into 3 parts: legislative, executive, judicial. After the end of the civil war, for a wide study and implementation of the scientific organization of labor and management, a number of research organizations. The activities of institutes and laboratories were subordinated to the creation of systematized concepts in the field of labor organization and management. In the 1920s, the NOT Council was created, headed by the People's Commissar V.V. Kuibyshev. A period of rapid development of domestic management theory began. Around such scientists as A.K. Gastev, P.M. Kerzhentsev, N.A. Vitke, E.F. Rozmirovich, I.M. Burdyansky, the first schools of management began to form. In the mid-1930s, management research was interrupted. They resumed only in the 60s on a new basis. There are three directions in which the research of management issues took place: 1) general theory social management; 2) public administration; 3) production management. However, only the third direction can be considered as formed.
At present, the science of social management as an independent scientific direction and academic discipline is not fully formed. And therefore it still does not give the result that is received from her effective use in Western countries.
